TIP 1:
Is NTP Working?
STEP 1 (Test the current server):
Try issuing the following command:
$ ntpq -pn
remote refid st t when poll reach delay offset jitter
===================================================
tock.usno.navy 0.0.0.0 16 u - 64 0 0.000 0.000 4000.00
The above is an example of a problem. Compare it to a working
configuration.
$ ntpq -pn
remote refid st t when poll reach delay offset jitter
========================================================
+128.4.40.12 128.4.40.10 2 u 107 128 377 25.642 3.350 1.012
127.127.1.0 127.127.1.0 10 l 40 64 377 0.000 0.000 0.008
+128.91.2.13 128.4.40.12 3 u 34 128 377 21.138 6.118 0.398
*192.5.41.41 .USNO. 1 u 110 128 377 33.69 9.533 3.534
STEP 2 (Configure the /etc/ntp.conf):
$ cat /etc/ntp.conf
# My simple client-only ntp configuration. server
timeserver1.upenn.edu # ping -a timeserver1.upenn.edu shows
the IP address 128.91.2.13 # which is used in the restrict
below restrict 128.91.2.13 server tock.usno.navy.mil restrict
192.5.41.41 server 128.4.40.12 restrict 128.4.40.12 server
127.127.1.0 # local clock fudge 127.127.1.0 stratum 10
driftfile /etc/ntp/drift restrict default ignore restrict
127.0.0.0 mask 255.0.0.0 authenticate no
STEP 3 (Configure /etc/ntp/step-tickers):
The values for server above are placed in the
"/etc/ntp/step-tickers" file
$ cat /etc/ntp/step-tickers
timeserver1.upenn.edu tock.usno.navy.mil 128.4.40.12
The startup script /etc/rc.d/init.d/ntpd will grab the servers
in this file and execute the ntpdate command as follows:
/usr/sbin/ntpdate -s -b -p 8 timeserver1.upenn.edu
Why? Because if the time is off ntpd will not start. The command
above set the clock. If System Time deviates from true time
by more than 1000 seconds, then, the ntpd daemon will enter
panic mode and exit.
STEP 4 (Restart the service and check):
Issue the restart command
/etc/init.d/ntpd restart
check the values for "ntpq -pn", which should match step 1.
ntpq -pn
SPECIAL NOTE:
Time is always stored in the kernel as the number of seconds
since midnight of the 1st of January 1970 UTC, regardless
of whether the hardware clock is stored as UTC or not.
Conversions to local time are done at run-time. So, it's easy
to get the time in different timezones for only the current
session as follows:
$ export TZ=EST $ date Mon Aug 2 10:34:04 EST 2004
$ export TZ=NET $ date Mon Aug 2 15:34:18 NET 2004
The following are possible values for TZ:
Hours From Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Value Description
0 GMT Greenwich Mean Time +1 ECT European Central Time
+2 EET European Eastern Time +2 ART +3 EAT Saudi Arabia
+3.5 MET Iran +4 NET +5 PLT West Asia +5.5 IST India +6
BST Central Asia +7 VST Bangkok +8 CTT China +9 JST Japan
+9.5 ACT Central Australia +10 AET Eastern Australia +11
SST Central Pacific +12 NST New Zealand -11 MIT Samoa -10
HST Hawaii -9 AST Alaska -8 PST Pacific Standard Time -7
PNT Arizona -7 MST Mountain Standard Time -6 CST Central
Standard Time -5 EST Eastern Standard Time -5 IET Indiana
East -4 PRT Atlantic Standard Time -3.5 CNT Newfoundland
-3 AGT Eastern South America -3 BET Eastern South America
-1 CAT Azores
DST timezone
0 BST for British Summer. +400 ADT for Atlantic
Daylight. +500 EDT for Eastern Daylight. +600 CDT
for Central Daylight. +700 MDT for Mountain Daylight.
+800 PDT for Pacific Daylight. +900 YDT for Yukon
Daylight. +1000 HDT for Hawaii Daylight. -100 MEST
for Middle European Summer,
MESZ for Middle European Summer, SST for Swedish
Summer and FST for French Summer.
-700 WADT for West Australian Daylight. -1000 EADT
for Eastern Australian Daylight. -1200 NZDT for New
Zealand Daylight.
The following is an example of setting the TZ environment variable
for the timezone, only when timezone changes go into effect.
$ export TZ=EST+5EDT,M4.1.0/2,M10.5.0/2
Take a look at the last line "M10.5.0/2". What does it mean? Here
is the documentation
Mm.w.d This specifies day d (0 <= d <= 6) of week w (1 <=
w <= 5) of
month m (1 <= m <= 12). Week 1 is the first week in
which day d occurs and week 5 is the last week in which
day d occurs. Day 0 is a Sunday.
The time fields specify when, in the local time currently
in effect, the change to the other time occurs.
If omitted, the default is 02:00:00.
So this is what it means. M10 stands for October, the 5 is the fifth
week that includes a Sunday (note 0 in M10.5.0/2 is Sunday). To
see that it is the fifth week see the calendar below. The time
change occurs a 2am in the morning. (Special Note: In 2007, DST
was extended. See TIP 230).
October
Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Prove it. Take the following program sunrise, which can calcuates
sunrise and sunset for an latitude and longitude. This program
can be downloaded from the following location:
http://sourceforge.net/direct-dl/mchirico/souptonuts/working_with_time.tar.gz
Below is a bash script that will run the program for the next
100 days.
#!/bin/bash # program: next100days Mike Chirico # download: #
http://sourceforge.net/direct-dl/mchirico/souptonuts/working_with_time.tar.gz
# # This will calculate the sunrise and sunset for # latitude
39.95 Note must convert to degrees # longitude 75.15 Note
must convert to degrees lat=39.95 long=75.15 for (( i=0; i <=
100; i++)) do
sunrise `date -d "+$i day" "+%Y %m %d"` $lat $long
done
Take a look at the following sample output.
$ export TZ=EST+5EDT,M4.1.0/2,M10.5.0/2 $ ./next100days
Sunrise 08-24-2004 06:21:12 Sunset 08-24-2004 19:43:42
Sunrise 08-25-2004 06:22:09 Sunset 08-25-2004 19:42:12
Sunrise 08-26-2004 06:23:06 Sunset 08-26-2004 19:40:41
Sunrise 08-27-2004 06:24:03 Sunset 08-27-2004 19:39:09
Sunrise 08-28-2004 06:25:00 Sunset 08-28-2004 19:37:37
Sunrise 08-29-2004 06:25:56 Sunset 08-29-2004 19:36:04
Sunrise 08-30-2004 06:26:53 Sunset 08-30-2004 19:34:31
Sunrise 08-31-2004 06:27:50 Sunset 08-31-2004 19:32:57
Sunrise 09-01-2004 06:28:46 Sunset 09-01-2004 19:31:22
Sunrise 09-02-2004 06:29:43 Sunset 09-02-2004 19:29:47
..[values omitted ] Sunrise 10-28-2004 07:25:31 Sunset
10-28-2004 18:02:34 Sunrise 10-29-2004 07:26:38 Sunset
10-29-2004 18:01:19 Sunrise 10-30-2004 07:27:46 Sunset
10-30-2004 18:00:06 Sunrise 10-31-2004 06:28:53 Sunset
10-31-2004 16:58:54 Sunrise 11-01-2004 06:30:01 Sunset
11-01-2004 16:57:44 Sunrise 11-02-2004 06:31:10 Sunset
11-02-2004 16:56:35
Compare 10-30-2004 with 10-31-2004. Sunrise is an hour earlier
because daylight saving time has ended, just as predicted.
There is an easier way to switch between timezones. Take a look
at the directory zoneinfo as follows:
$ ls /usr/share/zoneinfo
Africa Chile Factory Iceland Mexico posix
UCT America CST6CDT GB Indian Mideast
posixrules Universal Antarctica Cuba GB-Eire
Iran MST PRC US Arctic EET
GMT iso3166.tab MST7MDT PST8PDT UTC Asia
Egypt GMT0 Israel Navajo right WET
Atlantic Eire GMT-0 Jamaica NZ ROC
W-SU Australia EST GMT+0 Japan NZ-CHAT
ROK zone.tab Brazil EST5EDT Greenwich Kwajalein
Pacific Singapore Zulu Canada Etc Hongkong
Libya Poland SystemV CET Europe HST
MET Portugal Turkey
TZ can be set to any one of these files. Some of these
are directories and contain subdirectories, such as
./posix/America. This way you don not have to enter the timezone,
offset, and range for dst, since it has already been calculated.
$ export TZ=:/usr/share/zoneinfo/posix/America/Aruba $
export TZ=:/usr/share/zoneinfo/Egypt
Reference:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/cpearls/date_calc.tar.gz?download
Also see (TIP 27). Also see (TIP 103) using chrony which
is very similiar to ntpd. Note time settings can usually be
found in /etc/sysconfig/clock
List of timeserver:
http://tf.nist.gov/service/time-servers.html
A way to quickly set the time:
rdate -s time-b.nist.gov
TIP 2:
cpio works like tar, only better.
STEP 1 (Create two directories with data ../dir1 an ../dir2)
mkdir -p ../dir1 mkdir -p ../dir2 cp /etc/*.conf ../dir1/.
cp /etc/*.cnf ../dir2/.
Which will backup all your cnf and conf files.
STEP 2 (Piping the files to tar)
cpio works like tar but can take input from the "find" command.
$ find ../dir1/ | cpio -o --format=tar > test.tar
or
$ find ../dir1/ | cpio -o -H tar > test2.tar
Same command without the ">"
$ find ../dir1/ | cpio -o --format=tar -F test.tar
or
$ find ../dir1/ | cpio -o -H tar -F test2.tar
Using append
$ find ../dir1/ | cpio -o --format=tar -F test.tar
or
$ find ../dir2/ | cpio -o --format=tar --append -F test.tar
STEP 3 (List contents of the tar file)
$ cpio -it < test.tar
or
$ cpio -it -F test.tar
STEP 4 (Extract the contents)
$ cpio -i -F test.tar
TIP 3:
Working with tar. The basics with encryption.
STEP 1 (Using the tar command on the directory /stuff)
Suppose you have a directory /stuff To tar everything in stuff
to create a ".tar" file.
$ tar -cvf stuff.tar stuff
Which will create "stuff.tar".
STEP 2 (Using the tar command to create a ".tar.gz" of /stuff)
$ tar -czf stuff.tar.gz stuff
STEP 3 (List the files in the archive)
$ tar -tzf stuff.tar.gz
or
$ tar -tf stuff.tar
STEP 4 (A way to list specific files)
Note, pipe the results to a file and edit
$ tar -tzf stuff.tar.gz > mout
Then, edit mout to only include the files you want
$ tar -T mout -xzf stuff.tar.gz
The above command will only get the files in mout. Of couse,
if you want them all
$ tar -xzf stuff.tar.gz
STEP 5 (ENCRYPTION)
$ tar -zcvf - stuff|openssl des3 -salt -k secretpassword |
dd of=stuff.des3
This will create stuff.des3...don't forget the password you
put in place of secretpassword. This can be done interactively
as well.
$ dd if=stuff.des3 |openssl des3 -d -k secretpassword|tar
zxf -
NOTE: above there is a "-" at the end... this will
extract everything.
TIP 4:
Creating a Virtual File System and Mounting it with a Loopback
Device.
STEP 1 (Construct a 10MB file)
$ dd if=/dev/zero of=/tmp/disk-image count=20480
By default dd uses block of 512 so the size will be 20480*512
STEP 2 (Make an ext2 or ext3 file system) -- ext2 shown here.
$ mke2fs -q
or if you want ext3
$ mkfs -t ext3 -q /tmp/disk-image
yes, you can even use reiser, but you'll need to create a bigger
disk image. Something like "dd if=/dev/zero of=/tmp/disk-image
count=50480".
$ mkfs -t reiserfs -q /tmp/disk-image
Hit yes for confirmation. It only asks this because it's a file
STEP 3 (Create a directory "virtual-fs" and mount. This has to be
done as root)
$ mkdir /virtual-fs $ mount -o loop=/dev/loop0 /tmp/disk-image
/virtual-fs
SPECIAL NOTE: if you mount a second device you will have to
increase the
loop count: loop=/dev/loop1, loop=/dev/loop2,
... loop=/dev/loopn
Now it operates just like a disk. This virtual filesystem
can be mounted when the system boots by adding the following
to the "/etc/fstab" file. Then, to mount, just type "mount
/virtual-fs".
/tmp/disk-image /virtual-fs ext2
rw,loop=/dev/loop0 0 0
STEP 4 (When done, umount it)
$ umount /virtual-fs
SPECIAL NOTE: If you are using Fedora core 2, in the /etc/fstab
you can take
advantage of acl properties for this mount. Note the acl
next to the rw entry. This is shown here with ext3.
/tmp/disk-image /virtual-fs ext3
rw,acl,loop=/dev/loop1 0 0
Also, if you are using Fedora core 2 and above, you can
mount the file on a cryptoloop.
$ dd if=/dev/urandom of=disk-aes count=20480
$ modprobe loop $ modprobe cryptoloop $ modprobe aes
$ losetup -e aes /dev/loop0 disk-aes $ mkfs -t ext2
/dev/loop0 $ mount -o loop,encryption=aes disk-aes
If you do not have Fedora core 2, then, you can build
the kernel from source with some of the following options
(not complete, yet)
reference:
http://cvs.sourceforge.net/viewcvs.py/cpearls/cpearls/src/posted_on_sf/acl/ehd.pdf?rev=1.1&view=log
Cryptographic API Support (CONFIG_CRYPTO) generic
loop cryptographic (CONFIG_CRYPTOLOOP) Cryptographic
ciphers (CONFIG_CIPHERS) Enable one or more ciphers
(CONFIG CIPHER .*) such as AES.
HELPFUL INFORMATION: It is possible to bind mount partitions,
or associate the
mounted partition to a directory name.
# mount --bind /virtual-fs /home/mchirico/vfs
Also, if you want to see what filesystems are currently
mounted, "cat" the file "/etc/mtab"
$ cat /etc/mtab
Also see TIP 91.
TIP 5:
Setting up 2 IP address on "One" NIC. This example is on ethernet.
STEP 1 (The settings for the initial IP address)
$ cat /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0
DEVICE=eth0 BOOTPROTO=static BROADCAST=192.168.99.255
IPADDR=192.168.1.155 NETMASK=255.255.252.0 NETWORK=192.168.1.0
ONBOOT=yes
STEP 2 (2nd IP address: )
$ cat /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0:1
DEVICE=eth0:1 BOOTPROTO=static BROADCAST=192.168.99.255
IPADDR=192.168.1.182 NETMASK=255.255.252.0 NETWORK=192.168.1.0
ONBOOT=yes
SUMMARY Note, in STEP 1 the filename is "ifcfg-eth0", whereas in
STEP 2 it's "ifcfg-eth0:1" and also not the matching
entries for "DEVICE=...". Also, obviously, the "IPADDR"
is different as well.
TIP 6:
Sharing Directories Among Several Users.
Several people are working on a project in "/home/share" and they
need to create documents and programs so that others in the group
can edit and execute these documents as needed. Also see (TIP 186)
for adding existing users to groups.
$ /usr/sbin/groupadd share $ chown -R root.share /home/share $
/usr/bin/gpasswd -a
$ ls -ld /home/share
drwxrwsr-x 2 root share 4096 Nov 8 16:19
/home/share
^---------- Note the s bit, which was set with the
chmod 2775
$ cat /etc/group
...
share:x:502:chirico,donkey,zoe
... ^------- users are added to this group.
The user may need to login again to get access. Or, if the user is
currently logged in, they can run the following command:
$ su -
Note, the above step is recommended over "newgrp - share" since
currently newgrp in FC2,FC3, and FC4 gets access to the group but
the umask is not correctly formed.
As root you can test their account.
$ su -
'$ su - chirico' "
Note: SUID, SGID, Sticky bit. Only the left most octet is examined,
and "chmod 755" is used
as an example of the full command. But, anything else could
be used as well. Normally you'd want executable permissions.
Octal digit Binary value Meaning
Example usage
0 000 all cleared
$ chmod 0755 or chmod 755 1 001 sticky
$ chmod 1755 2 010 setgid
$ chmod 2755 3 011 setgid, sticky
$ chmod 3755 4 100 setuid
$ chmod 4755 5 101 setuid, sticky
$ chmod 5755 6 110 setuid, setgid
$ chmod 6755 7 111 setuid, setgid, sticky
$ chmod 7755
A few examples applied to a directory below. In the first example
all users in the group can add files to directory "dirA" and they
can delete their own files. Users cannot delete other user's files.
Sticky bit:
$ chmod 1770 dirA
Below files created within the directory have the group ID of the
directory, rather than that of the default group setting for the
user who created the file.
Set group ID bit:
$ chmod 2755 dirB
TIP 7:
Getting Infomation on Commands
The "info" is a great utility for getting information about the
system. Here's a quick key on using "info" from the terminal prompt.
'q' exits. 'u' moves up to the table of contents of the current
section. 'n' moves to the next chapter. 'p' moves to the
previous chapter. 'space' goes into the selected section.
The following is a good starting point:
$ info coreutils
Need to find out what a certain program does?
$ whatis open
open (2) - open and possibly create a file or device open
(3) - perl pragma to set default PerlIO layers for input and
output open (3pm) - perl pragma to set default PerlIO layers
for input and output open (n) - Open a file-based or command
pipeline channel
To get specific information about the open commmand
$ man 2 open
also try 'keyword' search, which is the same as the apropos
command. For example, to find all the man pages on selinux,
type the following:
$ man -k selinux
or the man full word search. Same as whatis command.
$ man -f
This is a hint once you are inside man.
space moves forward one page b moves backward y
scrolls up one line "yikes, I missed it!" g goes to
the beginning q quits /
n m mark, enter a letter like "a", then, ' to go back
' enter a letter that is marked.
To get section numbers
$ man 8 ping
Note the numbers are used as follows
(This is OpenBSD)
1 General Commands 2 System Calls and Error Numbers 3
C Libraries 3p perl 4 Devices and device drivers 5 File
Formats and config files 6 Game instructions 7 Miscellaneous
information 8 System maintenance 9 Kernel internals
To find the man page directly, "ls" command:
$ whereis -m ls ls: /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz
/usr/share/man/man1/ls.1 /usr/share/man/man1p/ls.1p
To read this file directly, do the following:
$ man /usr/share/man/man1/ls.1.gz
If you want to know the manpath, execute manpath.
$ manpath
/usr/share/man:/usr/X11R6/man:/usr/local/share/man:/usr/local/pgsql/man:/usr/man:/usr/local/man
TIP 8:
How to Put a "Running Job" in the Background.
You're running a job at the terminal prompt, and it's taking a very
long time. You want to put the job in the backgroud.
"CTL - z" Temporarily suspends the job $ jobs This will list
all the jobs $ bg %jobnumber (bg %1) To run in the background $
fg %jobnumber To bring back in the foreground
Need to kill all jobs -- say you're using several suspended emacs
sessions and you just want everything to exit.
$ kill -9 `jobs -p`
The "jobs -p" gives the process number of each job, and the kill
-9 kills everything. Yes, sometimes "kill -9" is excessive and you
should issue a "kill -15" that allows jobs to clean-up. However,
for exacs session, I prefer "kill -9" and haven't had a problem.
Sometimes you need to list the process id along with job
information. For instance, here's process id with the listing.
$ jobs -l
Note you can also renice a job, or give it lower priority.
$ nice -n +15 find . -ctime 2 -type f -exec ls {} \; > last48hours
^z
$ bg
So above that was a ctl-z to suppend. Then, bg to run it in the
background. Now, if you want to change the priority lower you just
renice it, once you know the process id.
$ jobs -pl
[1]+ 29388 Running nice -n +15 find . -ctime 2 -exec
ls -l {} \; >mout &
$ renice +30 -p 29388
29388: old priority 15, new priority 19
19 was the lowest priority for this job. You cannot increase the
priority unless you are root.
TIP 9:
Need to Delete a File for Good -- not even GOD can recover.
You have a file "secret". The following makes it so no one can
read it. If the file was 12 bytes, it's now 4096 after it has been
over written 100 times. There's no way to recover this.
$ shred -n 100 -z secret
Want to remove the file? Use the "u" option.
$ shred -n 100 -z -u test2
It can be applied to a device
$ shred -n 100 -z -u /dev/fd0
CAUTION: Note that shred relies on a very important assumption:
that the file system overwrites data in place. This is the
traditional way to do things, but many modern file system designs
do not sat- isfy this assumption. The following are examples of
file systems on which shred is not effective, or is not guaranteed
to be effective in all file system modes:
* log-structured or journaled file systems, such as those
supplied with
AIX and Solaris (and JFS, ReiserFS, XFS, Ext3, etc.)
Also see (TIP 52).
TIP 10:
Who and What is doing What on Your System - finding open sockets,
files etc.
$ lsof
or as root
$ watch lsof -i
To list all open Internet files, use:
$ lsof -i -U
You can also get very specific about ports. Do this as root for
low ports.
$ lsof -i TCP:3306
Or, look at UDP ports as follows:
$ lsof -i UDP:1812
(See TIP 118)
Also try fuser. Suppose you have a mounted file-system, and you
need to umount it. To list the users on the file-system /work
$ fuser -u /work
To kill all processes accessing the file system /work in any way.
$ fuser -km /work
Or better yet, maybe you want to eject a cdrom on /mnt/cdrom
$ fuser -km /mnt/cdrom
If you need IO load information about your system, you can execute
iostat. But note, the very first iostat gives a snapshot since the
last boot. You typically want the following command, which gives
you 3 outputs every 5 seconds.
$ iostat -xtc 5 3 Linux 2.6.12-1.1376_FC3smp
(squeezel.squeezel.com) 10/05/2005
Time: 07:05:04 PM avg-cpu: %user %nice %system %iowait %idle
0.97 0.06 1.94 0.62 96.41
Time: 07:05:09 PM avg-cpu: %user %nice %system %iowait %idle
0.60 0.00 1.70 0.00 97.70
Time: 07:05:14 PM avg-cpu: %user %nice %system %iowait %idle
1.00 0.00 1.60 0.00 97.39
vmstat reports memory statistics. See tip 241 for vmstat for I/O
subsystem total statistics.
$ vmstat $ ifconfig $ cat /proc/sys/vm/.. (entries under here)
*NOTE: (TIP 77) shows sample usage of "ifconfig". Also
(TIP 84) shows sample output of "$ cat /proc/cpuinfo". You
can download iostat and other packages from
(http://perso.wanadoo.fr/sebastien.godard/download_en.html).
You also may want to look at iozone (TIP 178).
Also
$ cat /proc/meminfo $ cat /proc/stat
$ cat /proc/uptime 1078623.55 1048008.34 First number is
the number of seconds since boot.
The second number is the number of
idle seconds.
$ cat /proc/loadavg 0.25 0.14 0.10 1/166 7778 This shows load
at 1,5, and 15 minutes,
a total of 1 current running process
out from a total of 166. The 7778
is the last process id used. Ref:
http://www.teamquest.com/resources/gunther/ldavg1.shtml
Or current process open file descriptors
$ ls -l /proc/self/fd/0
lrwx------ 1 chirico chirico 64 Jun 29 13:17 0 ->
/dev/pts/51 lrwx------ 1 chirico chirico 64 Jun
29 13:17 1 -> /dev/pts/51 lrwx------ 1 chirico chirico
64 Jun 29 13:17 2 -> /dev/pts/51 lr-x------ 1 chirico
chirico 64 Jun 29 13:17 3 -> /proc/26667/fd
So you could, $ echo "stuff" > /dev/pts/51, to get output. Note,
tree is also helpful here:
$ tree /proc/self
/proc/self |-- auxv |-- cmdline |-- cwd ->
/work/souptonuts/documentation/theBook |-- environ |-- exe
-> /usr/bin/tree |-- fd | |-- 0 -> /dev/pts/51 | |--
1 -> /dev/pts/51 | |-- 2 -> /dev/pts/51 | `-- 3 ->
/proc/26668/fd |-- maps |-- mem |-- mounts |-- root ->
/ |-- stat |-- statm |-- status |-- task | `-- 26668
| |-- auxv | |-- cmdline | |-- cwd ->
/work/souptonuts/documentation/theBook | |-- environ
| |-- exe -> /usr/bin/tree | |-- fd | |
|-- 0 -> /dev/pts/51 | | |-- 1 -> /dev/pts/51
| | |-- 2 -> /dev/pts/51 | | `-- 3 ->
/proc/26668/task/26668/fd | |-- maps | |-- mem |
|-- mounts | |-- root -> / | |-- stat | |--
statm | |-- status | `-- wchan `-- wchan
10 directories, 28 files
Need a listing of the system settings?
$ sysctl -a
Need IPC (Shared Memory Segments, Semaphore Arrays, Message Queue)
status etc?
$ ipcs $ ipcs -l "This gives limits"
Need to "watch" everything a user does? The following watches
donkey.
$ watch lsof -u donkey
Or, to see what in going on in directory "/work/junk"
$ watch lsof +D /work/junk
TIP 11:
How to make a File "immutable" or "unalterable" -- it cannot be
changed or deleted even by root. Note this works on (ext2/ext3)
filesystems. And, yes, root can delete after it's changed back.
As root:
$ chattr +i filename
And to change it back:
$ chattr -i filename
List attributes
$ lsattr filename
TIP 12:
SSH - How to Generate the Key Pair.
On the local server
$ ssh-keygen -t dsa -b 2048
This will create the two files:
.ssh/id_dsa (Private key) .ssh/id_dsa.pub (Public key you
can share)
Next insert ".ssh/id_dsa.pub" on the remote server in the file
".ssh/authorized_keys" and ".ssh/authorized_keys2" and change
the permission of each file to (chmod 600). Plus, make sure the
directory ".ssh" exists on the remote computer with 700 rights.
Ok, assuming 192.168.1.155 is the remote server and "donkey"
is the account on that remote server.
$ ssh donkey@192.168.1.155 "mkdir -p .ssh" $ ssh
donkey@192.168.1.155 "chmod 700 .ssh" $ scp ./.ssh/id_dsa.pub
donkey@192.168.1.155:.ssh/newkey.pub
Now connect to that remote server "192.168.1.155" and add
.ssh/newkey.pub to both "authorized_keys" and "authorized_keys2".
When done, the permission on
(This is on the remote server)
$chmod 600 .ssh/authorized_key*
Next, go back to the local server and issue the following:
$ ssh-agent $SHELL $ ssh-add
The "ssh-add" will allow you to enter the passphrase and it will
save it for the current login session.
You don't have to enter a password when running "ssh-keygen"
above. But, remember anyone with root access can "su -
and then connect to your computers. It's harder, however, not
impossible, for root to do this if you have a password.
(Reference TIP 151)
TIP 13:
Securing the System: Don't allow root to login remotely. Instead,
the admin could login as another account, then, "su -". However,
root can still login "from the local terminal".
In the "/etc/ssh/sshd_config" file change the following lines:
Protocol 2 PermitRootLogin no PermitEmptyPasswords no
Then, restart ssh
/etc/init.d/sshd restart
Why would you want to do this? It's not possible for anyone to
guess or keep trying the root account. This is especially good
for computers on the Internet. So, even if the "root" passwords is
known, they can't get access to the system remotely. Only from
the terminal, which is locked in your computer room. However,
if anyone has a account on the server, then, they can login under
their account then "su -".
Suppose you only want a limited number of users: "mchirico" and
"donkey". Add the following line to "/etc/ssh/sshd_config". Note,
this allows access for chirico and donkey, but everyone else
is denied.
# Once you add AllowUsers - everyone else is denied.
AllowUsers mchirico donkey
TIP 14:
Keep Logs Longer with Less Space.
Normally logs rotate monthly, over writing all the old data.
Here's a sample "/etc/logrotate.conf" that will keep 12 months of
backup compressing the logfiles
$ cat /etc/logrotate.conf
# see "man logrotate" for details # rotate log files weekly
#chirico changes to monthly monthly
# keep 4 weeks worth of backlogs # keep 12 months of backup
rotate 12
# create new (empty) log files after rotating old ones create
# uncomment this if you want your log files compressed
compress
# RPM packages drop log rotation information into this
directory include /etc/logrotate.d
# no packages own wtmp -- we'll rotate them here
/var/log/wtmp {
monthly create 0664 root utmp rotate 1
}
# system-specific logs may be also be configured here.
Note: see tip 1. The clock should always be correctly set.
TIP 15:
What Network Services are Running?
$ netstat -atup
or
$ netstat -ap|grep LISTEN|less
This can be helpful to determine the services running.
Need stats on dropped UDP packets?
$ netstat -s -u
or TCP
$ netstat -s -t
or summary of everything
$ netstat -s
or looking for error rates on the interface?
$ netstat -i
Listening interfaces?
$ netstat -l
(Tip above provided by Amos Shapira)
Also see TIP 77.
TIP 16:
Apache: Creating and Using an ".htaccess" File
Below is a sample ".htaccess" file which goes in
"/usr/local/apache/htdocs/chirico/alpha/.htaccess" for this example
AuthUserFile /usr/local/apache/htdocs/chirico/alpha/.htpasswd
AuthGroupFile /dev/null AuthName "Your Name and regular password
required" AuthType Basic
In order for this to work /usr/local/apache/conf/httpd.conf must
have the following line in it:
#
AllowOverride FileInfo AuthConfig Limit Options MultiViews
Indexes SymLinksIfOwnerMatch IncludesNoExec
Order allow,deny Allow from all
Order deny,allow Deny from all
Also, a password file must be created
$ /usr/local/apache/bin/htpasswd -c .htpasswd chirico
And enter the user names and passwords.
Next Reload Apache:
$ /etc/init.d/httpd reload
(Reference TIP 213 limit access to certain directories based on
IP address).
TIP 17:
Working with "mt" Commands: reading and writing to tape.
The following assumes the tape device is "/dev/st0"
STEP 1 ( rewind the tape)
# mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind
STEP 2 (check to see if you are at block 0)
# mt -f /dev/nst0 tell
At block 0.
STEP 3 (Backup "tar compress" directories "one" and "two")
# tar -czf /dev/nst0 one two
STEP 4 (Check to see what block you are at)
# mt -f /dev/nst0 tell
You should get something like block 2 at this point.
STEP 5 (Rewind the tape)
# mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind
STEP 6 (List the files)
# tar -tzf /dev/nst0
one/ one/test two/
STEP 7 (Restore directory "one" into directory "junk"). Note, you
have to first rewind the tape, since the last operation moved
ahead 2 blocks. Check this with "mt -f /dev/nst0".
# cd junk # mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind # mt -f /dev/nst0 tell
At block 0.
# tar -xzf /dev/nst0 one
STEP 8 (Next, take a look to see what block the tape is at)
# mt -f /dev/nst0 tell
At block 2.
STEP 9 (Now backup directories three and four)
# tar -czf /dev/nst0 three four
After backing up the files, the tape should be past block 2.
Check this.
# mt -f /dev/nst0 tell
At block 4.
Currently the following exist:
At block 1:
one/
one/test two/
At block 2:
three/ three/samplehere four/
At block 4:
(* This is empty *)
A few notes. You can set the blocking factor and a label with
tar. For example:
$ tar --label="temp label" --create --blocking-factor=128
--file=/dev/nst0 Notes
But note if you try to read it with the default, incorrect blocking
factor, then, you will get the following error:
$ tar -t --file=/dev/nst0 tar: /dev/nst0: Cannot read: Cannot
allocate memory tar: At beginning of tape, quitting now tar:
Error is not recoverable: exiting now
However this is easily fixed with the correct blocking factor
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind $ tar -t --blocking-factor=128
--file=/dev/nst0 temp label Notes
Take advantage of the label command.
$ MYCOMMENTS="Big_important_tape" $ tar --label="$(date
+%F)"+"${MYCOMMENTS}"
Writing to tape on a remote 192.168.1.155 computer
$ tar cvzf - ./tmp | ssh -l chirico 192.168.1.155 '(mt -f
/dev/nst0 rewind; dd of=/dev/st0 )'
Restoring the contents from tape on a remote computer
$ ssh -l chirico 192.168.1.155 '(mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind; dd
if=/dev/st0 )'|tar xzf -
Getting data off of tape with dd command with odd blocking
factor. Just set ibs very high
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind $ tar --label="Contenets of Notes"
--create --blocking-factor=128 --file=/dev/nst0 Notes $ mt -f
/dev/nst0 rewind $ dd ibs=1048576 if=/dev/st0 of=notes.tar
The above will probably work with ibs=64k as well
(Also see TIP 136)
TIP 18:
Encrypting Data to Tape using "tar" and "openssl".
The following shows an example of writing the contents of "tapetest"
to tape:
$ tar zcvf - tapetest|openssl des3 -salt -k secretpassword |
dd of=/dev/st0
Reading the data back:
$ dd if=/dev/st0|openssl des3 -d -k secretpassword|tar xzf -
TIP 19:
Mounting an ISO Image as a Filesystem -- this is great if you don't
have the DVD
hardware, but, need to get at the data. The following show an
example of mounting the Fedora core 2 as a file.
$ mkdir /iso0 $ mount -o loop -t iso9660 /FC2-i386-DVD.iso /iso0
Or to mount automatically at boot, add the following to "/etc/fstab"
/FC2-i386-DVD.iso /iso0 iso9660 rw,loop 0 0
Reference:
http://umn.dl.sourceforge.net/sourceforge/souptonuts/README_fedora.txt
TIP 20:
Getting Information about the Hard drive and list all PCI devices.
$ hdparm /dev/hda
/dev/hda:
multcount = 16 (on) IO_support = 0 (default
16-bit) unmaskirq = 0 (off) using_dma = 1
(on) keepsettings = 0 (off) readonly = 0 (off)
readahead = 256 (on) geometry = 16383/255/63,
sectors = 234375000, start = 0
or for SCSI
$ hdparm /dev/sda
Try it with the -i option for information
$ hdparm -i /dev/hda
/dev/hda:
Model=IC35L120AVV207-1, FwRev=V24OA66A,
SerialNo=VNVD09G4CZ6E0T Config={ HardSect NotMFM
HdSw>15uSec Fixed DTR>10Mbs } RawCHS=16383/16/63,
TrkSize=0, SectSize=0, ECCbytes=52 BuffType=DualPortCache,
BuffSize=7965kB, MaxMultSect=16, MultSect=16
CurCHS=16383/16/63, CurSects=16514064,
LBA=yes, LBAsects=234375000 IORDY=on/off,
tPIO={min:240,w/IORDY:120}, tDMA={min:120,rec:120} PIO
modes: pio0 pio1 pio2 pio3 pio4 DMA modes: mdma0 mdma1
mdma2 UDMA modes: udma0 udma1 udma2 udma3 udma4 *udma5
AdvancedPM=yes: disabled (255) WriteCache=enabled Drive
conforms to: ATA/ATAPI-6 T13 1410D revision 3a: 2 3 4 5 6
How fast is your drive?
$ hdparm -tT /dev/hda
/dev/hda: Timing buffer-cache reads: 128 MB in 0.41
seconds =315.32 MB/sec Timing buffered disk reads:
64 MB in 1.19 seconds = 53.65 MB/sec
Need to find your device?
$ mount
or
$ cat /proc/partitions
or
$ dmesg | egrep '^(s|h)d'
which for my system lists:
hda: IC35L120AVV207-1, ATA DISK drive hdc: Lite-On
LTN486S 48x Max, ATAPI CD/DVD-ROM drive hda: max
request size: 1024KiB hda: 234375000 sectors (120000
MB) w/7965KiB Cache, CHS=16383/255/63, UDMA(100)
By the way, if you want to turn on dma
$ hdparm -d1 /dev/hda
setting using_dma to 1 (on) using_dma = 1 (on)
(Also see TIP 122 )
List all PCI devices
$ lspci -v
00:00.0 Host bridge: Intel Corp. 82845G/GL [Brookdale-G]
Chipset Host Bridge (rev
Subsystem: Dell Computer Corporation: Unknown device
0160 Flags: bus master, fast devsel, latency 0
Memory at f0000000 (32-bit, prefetchable) [size=128M]
Capabilities:
... lots more ...
Note, there is also lspci -vv for even more information.
(Also see TIP 200)
TIP 21:
Setting up "cron" Jobs.
If you want to use the emacs editor for editing cron jobs, then,
set the following in your "/home/user/.bash_profile"
EDITOR=emacs
Then, to edit cron jobs
$ crontab -e
You may want to put in the following header
#MINUTE(0-59) HOUR(0-23) DAYOFMONTH(1-31) MONTHOFYEAR(1-12)
DAYOFWEEK(0-6) Note 0=Sun and 7=Sun # #14,15 10 * * 0
/usr/bin/somecommmand >/dev/null 2>&1
The sample "commented out command" will run at 10:14 and 10:15
every Sunday. There will be no "mail" sent to the user because of
the ">/dev/null 2>&1" entry.
$ crontab -l
The above will list all cron jobs. Or if you're root
$ crontab -l -u
Reference "man 5 crontab":
The time and date fields are:
field allowed values -----
-------------- minute 0-59 hour
0-23 day of month 1-31 month 1-12 (or
names, see below) day of week 0-7 (0 or 7 is Sun,
or use names)
A field may be an asterisk (*), which always stands for
``first-last''.
Ranges of numbers are allowed. Ranges are two numbers
separated with a hyphen. The specified range is
inclusive. For example, 8-11 for an ``hours'' entry
specifies execution at hours 8, 9, 10 and 11.
Lists are allowed. A list is a set of numbers (or ranges)
separated by commas. Examples: ``1,2,5,9'', ``0-4,8-12''.
Ranges can include "steps", so "1-9/2" is the same as
"1,3,5,7,9".
Note, you can run just every 5 minutes as follows:
*/5 * * * * /etc/mrtg/domrtg >/dev/null 2>&1
To run jobs hourly,daily,weekly or monthly you can add shell scripts
into the appropriate directory:
/etc/cron.hourly/ /etc/cron.daily/ /etc/cron.weekly/
/etc/cron.monthly/
Note that the above are pre-configured schedules set in
"/etc/crontab", so if you want, you can change the schedule. Below
is my /etc/crontab:
$ cat /etc/crontab SHELL=/bin/bash
PATH=/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin MAILTO=root HOME=/
# run-parts 01 * * * * root run-parts /etc/cron.hourly 02 4 *
* * root run-parts /etc/cron.daily 22 4 * * 0 root run-parts
/etc/cron.weekly 42 4 1 * * root run-parts /etc/cron.monthly
TIP 22:
Keeping Files in Sync Between Servers.
The remote computer is "192.168.1.171" and has the account "donkey".
You want to "keep in sync" the files under "/home/cu2000/Logs" on
the remote computer with files on "/home/chirico/dev/MEDIA_Server"
on the local computer.
$ rsync -Lae ssh donkey@192.168.1.171:/home/cu2000/Logs
/home/chirico/dev/MEDIA_Server
"rsync" is a convient command for keeping files in sync, and as
shown here will work through ssh. The -L option tells rsync to
treat symbolic links like ordinary files.
Also see [http://www.rsnapshot.org/]
TIP 23:
Looking up the Spelling of a Word.
$ look
so the following will list all words that start with stuff
$ look stuff
stuff stuffage stuffata stuffed stuffender stuffer stuffers
stuffgownsman stuffier stuffiest stuffily stuffiness
stuffinesses stuffiness's stuffing stuffings stuffing's
stuffless stuffs stuffy
It helps to have a large "linuxwords" dictionary. You can download
a much bigger dictionary from the following:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/linuxwords.1.tar.gz?download
Note: vim users can setup the .vimrc file with the following. Now
when you type
CTL-X CTL-T in insert mode, you'll get a thesaurus lookup.
set dictionary+=/usr/share/dict/words set
thesaurus+=/usr/share/dict/words
Or, you can call aspell with the F6 command after putting the
folling entry in your .vimrc file
:nmap
Now, hit F6 when you're in vim, and you'll get a spell checker.
There is also an X Windows dictionary that runs with the following
command.
$ gnome-dictionary
TIP 24:
Find out if a Command is Aliased.
$ type -all
Example:
$ type -all ls
ls is aliased to `ls --color=tty' ls is /bin/ls
TIP 25:
Create a Terminal Calculator
Put the following in your .bashrc file
function calc {
echo "${1}"|bc -l;
}
Or, run it at the shell prompt. Now "calc" from the shell will
work as follows:
$ calc 3+45
48
All functions with a "(" or ")" must be enclosed in quotes.
For instance, to get the sin of .4
$ calc "s(.4)"
.38941834230865049166
(See TIP 115 using the expr command)
TIP 26:
Kill a User and All Their Current Processes.
#!/bin/bash # This program will kill all processes from a
# user. The user name is read from the command line. #
# This program also demonstrates reading a bash variable #
into an awk script. # # Usage: kill9user
`ps aux|awk -v var=$1 '$1==var { print $2 }'`
or if you want want to create the above script the command below
will kill the user "donkey" and all of his processes.
$ kill -9 `ps aux|awk -v var="donkey" '$1==var { print $2 }'`
Check their cron jobs and "at" jobs, if you have a security issue.
$ crontab -u
Lock the account:
$ passwd -l
Remove all authorized_keys
$ rm /home/user/.shosts $ rm /home/user/.rhosts $ rm -rf
/home/user/.ssh $ rm /home/user/.forward
or consider
$ mv /home/user /home/safeuser
Change the shell
$ chsh -s /bin/true
Do an inventory
$ find / -user
NOTE: Also see (TIP 10).
To see all users, except the current user. Do not use the dash
"ps -aux" is wrong but the following is correct:
$ ps aux| awk '!/'${USER}'/{printf("%s \n",$0)}'
or (ww = wide, wide output)
$ ps auwwx| awk '!/'${USER}'/{printf("%s \n",$0)}'
The following codes may be useful:
D Uninterruptible sleep (usually IO) R Running or runnable
(on run queue) S Interruptible sleep (waiting for an event
to complete) T Stopped, either by a job control signal or
because it is being traced. W paging (not valid since the
2.6.xx kernel) X dead (should never be seen) Z Defunct
("zombie") process, terminated but not reaped by its parent.
For BSD formats and when the stat keyword is used, additional
characters may be displayed:
< high-priority (not nice to other users) N low-priority
(nice to other users) L has pages locked into memory (for
real-time and custom IO) s is a session leader l is
multi-threaded (using CLONE_THREAD, like NPTL pthreads do) +
is in the foreground process group
Also see TIP 28. and TIP 89.
TIP 27:
Format Dates for Logs and Files
$ date "+%m%d%y %A,%B %d %Y %X"
061704 Thursday,June 17 2004 07:13:40 PM
$ date "+%m%d%Y"
06172004
$ date -d '1 day ago' "+%m%d%Y"
06162004
$ date -d '3 months 1 day 2 hour 15 minutes 2 seconds ago'
or to go into the future remove the "ago"
$ date -d '3 months 1 day 2 hour 15 minutes 2 seconds '
Also the following works:
$ date -d '+2 year +1 month -1 week +3 day -8 hour +2
min -5 seconds'
Quick question: If there are 100,000,000 stars in the visible sky,
and you can count them, round the clock, at a rate of a star per
second starting now, when would you finish counting? Would you
still be alive?
$ date -d '+100000000 seconds'
Sooner than you think!
This can be assigned to variables
$ mdate=`date -d '3 months 1 day 2 hour 15 minutes 2 seconds '
"+%m%d%Y_%A_%B_%D_%Y_%X" ` $ echo $mdate
09182004_Saturday_September_09/18/04_2004_09:40:41 PM ^----
Easy to sort ^-------^----- Easy to read
See TIP 28 below.
See TIP 87 when working with large delta time changes -40 years,
or -200 years ago, or even 1,000,000 days into the future.
Also see (TIP 1) for working with time zones.
See TIP 240 for converting epoch seconds to local time.
TIP 28:
Need Ascii Codes? For instance, for printing quotes:
awk 'BEGIN { msg = "Don\047t Panic!"; printf
"%s \n",msg }'
or
awk 'BEGIN { msg = "Don\x027t Panic!"; printf
"%s \n",msg }'
It's better to use \047, because certain characters that follow
\x027 may cause problems.
For example, take a look at the following two lines. The first
line prints a "}" caused by the extra D in \x027D. The the line
immediately below does not work as expected.
awk 'BEGIN {printf("The D causes problems
\x027D\n")}'
However, the line below works fine:
awk 'BEGIN {printf("The D does not cause problems
\047D\n")}'
Or if you wanted to use the date command in "awk" to print
date.time.nanosecond.timezone for each line of a file "test".
The following date can be used in awk because the single quotes
are enclosed within the double quotes.
date '+%m%d%Y.%H%M%S.%N%z'
$ awk 'BEGIN { "date '+%m%d%Y.%H%M%S.%N%z'" | getline MyDate }
{ print MyDate,$0 }' < data
But it's also possible to replace "+" with \x2B, "%" with \x25,
and "d" with \x64 as follows:
$ awk 'BEGIN { "date
\x27\x2B\x25m\x25\x64\x25Y.\x25H\x25M\x25S.\x25N\x25z\x27" |
getline MyDate } { print MyDate,$0 }' < test
07062004.113820.346033000-0400 bob 71
07062004.113820.346033000-0400 tom 43
07062004.113820.346033000-0400 sal 34
07062004.113820.346033000-0400 bob 89
07062004.113820.346033000-0400 tom 66
07062004.113820.346033000-0400 sal 99
For this example it's not needed because single quotes are used
inside of double quotes; however, there may be times when hex
replacement is easier.
$ man ascii
Oct Dec Hex Char Oct Dec Hex Char
------------------------------------------------------------------------
000 0 00 NUL ’\0’ 100 64 40 @
001 1 01 SOH (start of heading) 101 65 41 A
002 2 02 STX (start of text) 102 66 42 B
003 3 03 ETX (end of text) 103 67 43 C
004 4 04 EOT (end of transmission) 104 68 44 D
005 5 05 ENQ (enquiry) 105 69 45 E
006 6 06 ACK (acknowledge) 106 70 46 F
007 7 07 BEL ’\a’ (bell) 107 71 47 G
010 8 08 BS ’\b’ (backspace) 110 72 48 H
011 9 09 HT ’\t’ (horizontal tab) 111 73 49 I
012 10 0A LF ’\n’ (new line) 112 74 4A J
013 11 0B VT ’\v’ (vertical tab) 113 75 4B K
014 12 0C FF ’\f’ (form feed) 114 76 4C L
015 13 0D CR ’\r’ (carriage ret) 115 77 4D M
016 14 0E SO (shift out) 116 78 4E N
017 15 0F SI (shift in) 117 79 4F O
020 16 10 DLE (data link escape) 120 80 50 P
021 17 11 DC1 (device control 1) 121 81 51 Q
022 18 12 DC2 (device control 2) 122 82 52 R
023 19 13 DC3 (device control 3) 123 83 53 S
024 20 14 DC4 (device control 4) 124 84 54 T
025 21 15 NAK (negative ack.) 125 85 55 U
026 22 16 SYN (synchronous idle) 126 86 56 V
027 23 17 ETB (end of trans. blk) 127 87 57 W
030 24 18 CAN (cancel) 130 88 58 X
031 25 19 EM (end of medium) 131 89 59 Y
032 26 1A SUB (substitute) 132 90 5A Z
033 27 1B ESC (escape) 133 91 5B [
034 28 1C FS (file separator) 134 92 5C \ ’\\’
035 29 1D GS (group separator) 135 93 5D ]
036 30 1E RS (record separator) 136 94 5E ^
037 31 1F US (unit separator) 137 95 5F _
040 32 20 SPACE 140 96 60 `
041 33 21 ! 141 97 61 a
042 34 22 " 142 98 62 b
043 35 23 # 143 99 63 c
044 36 24 $ 144 100 64 d
045 37 25 % 145 101 65 e
046 38 26 & 146 102 66 f
047 39 27 ’ 147 103 67 g
050 40 28 ( 150 104 68 h
051 41 29 ) 151 105 69 i
052 42 2A * 152 106 6A j
053 43 2B + 153 107 6B k
054 44 2C , 154 108 6C l
055 45 2D - 155 109 6D m
056 46 2E . 156 110 6E n
057 47 2F / 157 111 6F o
060 48 30 0 160 112 70 p
061 49 31 1 161 113 71 q
062 50 32 2 162 114 72 r
063 51 33 3 163 115 73 s
064 52 34 4 164 116 74 t
065 53 35 5 165 117 75 u
066 54 36 6 166 118 76 v
067 55 37 7 167 119 77 w
070 56 38 8 170 120 78 x
071 57 39 9 171 121 79 y
072 58 3A : 172 122 7A z
073 59 3B ; 173 123 7B {
074 60 3C < 174 124 7C |
075 61 3D = 175 125 7D }
076 62 3E > 176 126 7E ~
077 63 3F ? 177 127 7F DEL
TIP 29:
Need a WWW Browser for the Terminal Session? Try lynx or elinks.
$ lynx
Or to read all these tips, with the latest updates
$ lynx
http://umn.dl.sourceforge.net/sourceforge/souptonuts/How_to_Linux_and_Open_Source.txt
Or, better yet elinks.
$ elinks http://somepage.
You can get elinks at the following site:
http://elinks.or.cz/
TIP 30:
screen - screen manager with VT100/ANSI terminal emulation
This is an excellent utility. But if you work a lot in Emacs,
then, you should place the following in your ~/.bashrc
alias s='screen -e^Pa -D -R'
After loging in again (or source .bashrc) , type the following
to load "screen":
$ s
If you're using the not using the alias command above, substitute
CTL-a for CTL-p below. :
CTL-p CTL-C To get a new session CTL-p " To
list sessions, and arrow keys to move CTL-p SHFT-A To
name sessions CTL-p S To split screens CLT-p Q
To unsplit screens CLT-p TAB To switch between
screens CLT-p :resize n To resize screen to n rows,
on split screen
Screen is very powerful. Should you become disconneced, you
can still resume work after loggin in.
$ man screen
The above command will give you more information.
TIP 31:
Need to Find the Factors of a Number?
$ factor 2345678992
2345678992: 2 2 2 2 6581 22277
It's a quick way to find out if a number is prime
$ factor 7867
7867: 7867
TIP 32:
Less is More -- piping to less to scroll backword and forward
For large "ls" listings try the followin, then, use the arrow key
to move up and down the list.
$ ls /some_large_dir/ | less
or
$ cat some_large_file | less
or
$ less some_large_file
TIP 33:
C "indent" Settings for Kernel Development
$ indent -kr -i8 program.c
TIP 34:
FTP auto-login. "ftp" to a site and have the password stored.
For instance, here's a sample ".net" file in a user's home directory
for uploading to sourceforge. Note, sourceforge will take any
password, so m@temp.com is used here for login "anonymous".
$ cat ~/.netrc
machine upload.sourceforge.net login anonymous password
m@temp.com default login anonymous password user@site
It might be a good idea to change the rights on this file
$ chmod 0400 ~/.netrc
#!/bin/bash # # Sample ftp automated script to download
# file to ${dwnld} # dwnld="/work/faq/unix-faq" cd
${dwnld} ftp << FTPSTRING prompt off open rtfm.mit.edu cd
/pub/usenet-by-group/news.answers/unix-faq/faq mget contents
mget diff mget part* bye FTPSTRING
Sourceforge uses an anonymous login with an email address as
a password. Below is the automated script I use for uploading
binary files.
#!/bin/bash # ftp sourceforge auto upload ftpup.sh # Usage:
./ftpup.sh
user anonymous m@aol.com ftp -n -u << FTPSTRING open
upload.sourceforge.net user anonymous m@aol.com binary cd incoming
put ${1} bye FTPSTRING
(Also see TIP 114 for ncftpget, which is a very powerful restarting
ftp program)
TIP 35:
Bash Brace Expansion
$ echo f{ee,ie,oe,um}
fee fie foe fum
This works with almost any command
$ mkdir -p /work/junk/{one,two,three,four}
TIP 36:
Getting a List of User Accounts on the System
$ cut -d: -f1 /etc/passwd | sort
Note (Thanks to Philip Vanmontfort) you can also do the following:
$ getent passwd|cut -d: -f1|sort
TIP 37:
Editing a Bash Command
Try typing a long command say, then, type "fc" for an easy way to
edit the command.
$ find /etc -iname '*.cnf' -exec grep -H 'log' {} \; $ fc
"fc" will bring the last command typed into an editor, "emacs" if
that's the default editor. Type "fc -l" to list last few commands.
To seach for a command, try typing "CTL-r" at the shell prompt for
searching. "CTL-t" to transpose, say "sl" was typed by you want
"ls".
Hints when using "fc: in emacs:
ESC-b move one word backward ESC-f move one word
forward ESC-DEL kill one word backward CTL-k kill point
to end CTL-y un-yank killed region at point
TIP 38:
Moving around Directories.
Change to the home directory:
$ cd ~
or
$ cd
To go back to the last directory
$ cd -
Instead of "cd" to a directory try "pushd" and look at the
heading...you can see a list of directories.
$ pushd /etc $ pushd /usr/local
Then, to get back "popd" or "popd 1"
To list all the directories pushed on the stack use the "dirs -v"
command.
$ dirs -v
0 /usr/local 1 /etc 2 /work/souptonuts/documentation/theBook
Now, if you "pushd +1" you will be moved to "/etc", since is number
"1" on the stack, and this directory will become "0".
$ pwd
/usr/local
$ pushd +1 $ pwd
/etc
$ dirs -v
0 /etc 1 /work/souptonuts/documentation/theBook 2 /usr/local
TIP 39:
Need an Underscore after a Variable?
Enclose the variable in "{}".
$echo ${UID}_
Compare to
$echo $UID_
Also try the following:
$ m="my stuff here" $ echo -e ${m// /'\n'}
my stuff here
TIP 40:
Bash Variable Offset and String Operators
$ r="this is stuff" $ echo ${r:3} $ echo ${r:5:2}
Note, ${varname:offset:length}
${varname:?message} If varname exist and isn't null return
value, else,
print var and message.
$ r="new stuff" $ echo ${r:? "that's r for you"}
new stuff
$ unset r $ echo ${r:? "that's r for you"}
bash: r: that's r for you
${varname:+word} If varname exist and not null return
word. Else, return null.
${varname:-word} If varname exist and not null return
value. Else, return word.
Working with arrays in bash - bash arrays.
$ unset p $ p=(one two three)
$ echo -e "${p[@]}" one two three
or
$ echo -e "${p[*]}" one two three
$ echo -e "${#p[@]}" 3
$ echo -e "${p[0]}" one
$ echo -e "${p[1]}" two
Also see (TIP 95)
TIP 41:
Loops in Bash
The command below loops through directories listed in $PATH.
$ path=$PATH: $ while [ $path ]; do echo " ${path%%:*} ";
path=${path#*:}; done
The command below will also loop through directories in your path.
$IFS=: $ for dir in $PATH > do > ls -ld $dir > done
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Jun 10 20:16
/usr/local/bin drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096
Jun 13 23:12 /bin drwxr-xr-x 3 root root 40960
Jun 12 08:00 /usr/bin drwxr-xr-x 2 root root
4096 Feb 14 03:12 /usr/X11R6/bin drwxrwxr-x 2 chirico
chirico 4096 Jun 6 13:06 /home/chirico/bin
Other ways of doing loops:
for (( i=1; i <= 20; i++))
do
echo -n "$i "
done
Note, to do it all on one line, do the following:
$ for (( i=1; i <= 20; i++)); do echo -n "$i"; done
Below, is an example of declaring i an integer so that you do not
have to preface with let.
$ declare -i i $ i=5; $ while (( $i > 1 )); do > i=i-1 >
echo $i > done 4 3 2
You can also use "while [ $i -gt 1 ]; do" in place of "while ((
$i > 1 )); do"
To get a listing of all declared values
$ declare -i
Try putting a few words in the file "test"
$ while read filename; do echo "- $filename "; done < test
|nl -w1
Or, using an array
declare -a Array Array[0]="zero" Array[1]="one"
Array[2]="two" for i in `seq ${#Array[@]}` do
echo $Array[$i-1]
done
Also see (TIP 95 and TIP 133).
TIP 42:
"diff" and "patch".
You have created a program "prog.c", saved as this name and
also copied to "prog.c.old". You post "prog.c" to users. Next,
you make changes to prog.c
$ diff -c prog.c.old prog.c > prog.patch
Now, users can get the latest updates by running.
$ patch < prog.patch
By the way, you can make backups of your data easily.
$ cp /etc/fstab{,.bak}
Now, you do your edits to "/etc/fstab" and if you need to go
back to the original, you can find it at "/etc/fstab.bak".
TIP 43:
"cat" the Contents of Files Listed in a File, in That Order.
SETUP (Assume you have the following)
$ cat file_of_files
file1 file2
$ cat file1
This is the data in file1
$ cat file 2
This is the data in file2
So there are 3 files here "file_of_files" which contains the
name of other files. In this case "file1" and "file2". And the
contents of "file1" and "file2" is shown above.
$ cat file_of_files|xargs cat
This is the data in file1 This is the data in file2
Also see (TIP 44, TIP 62 and TIP 235).
TIP 44:
Columns and Rows -- getting anything you want.
Assume you have the following file.
$ cat data
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
How to you get everything in 2 columns?
$ cat data|tr ' ' '\n'|xargs -l2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Three columns?
$ cat data|tr ' ' '\n'|xargs -l3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
What's the row sum of the "three columns?"
$ cat data|tr ' ' '\n'|xargs -l3|tr ' ' '+'|bc
6 15 24 33 27
or
$ tr ' ' '\n' < data |xargs -l3|tr ' ' '+'|bc
NOTE "Steven Heiner's rule":
cat one_file | program
can always be rewritten as
program < one_file
Note: thanks to Steven Heiner (http://www.shelldorado.com/) the above
can be
shortened as follows:
$ tr ' ' '\n' < data|xargs -l3|tr ' ' '+'|bc
Need to "tr" from the stdin?
$ tr "xy" "yx"| ... | ...
But there is a the "Stephane CHAZELAS" condition here
"Note that tr, sed, and awk mail fail on files containing '\0'
sed and awk have unspecified behaviors if the input doesn't end
in a '\n' (or to sum up, cat works for binary and text files,
text utilities such as sed or awk work only for text files).
TIP 45:
Auto Directory Spelling Corrections.
To turn this on:
$ shopt -s cdspell
Now mispell a directory in the cd command.
$ cd /usk/local
^-------- still gets you to --
|
/usr/local
What other options can you set? The following will list all the
options:
$ shopt -p
TIP 46:
Record Eveything Printed on Your Terminal Screen.
$ script -a
Now start doing stuff and "everything" is appended to
For example
$ script installation
$ (command)
$ (result)
$ ...
$ ...
$ (command)
$ (result)
$ exit
The whole session log is in the installation file that you can
later read and/or cleanup and add to a documentation.
This command can also be used to redirect the contents to another
user, but you must be root to do this.
Step 1 - find out what pts they are using.
$ w
Step 2 - Run script on that pts. After running this command below
everything you type will appear on their screen.
$ script /dev/pts/4
Thanks to Jacques.GARNIER-EXTERIEUR@EU.RHODIA.COM for his
contribution to this tip.
Also reference TIP 208.
TIP 47:
Monitor all Network Traffic Except Your Current ssh Connection.
$ tcpdump -i eth0 -nN -vvv -xX -s 1500 port not 22
Or to filter out port 123 as well getting the full length of the
packet (-s 0), use the following:
$ tcpdump -i eth0 -nN -vvv -xX -s 0 port not 22 and port
not 123
Or to filter only a certain host say 81.169.158.205
$ tcpdump -i eth0 -nN -vvv -xX port not 22 and host
81.169.158.205
Just want ip addresses and a little bit of data, then, use this. The
"-c 20" is to stop after 20 packets.
$ tcpdump -i eth0 -nN -s 1500 port not 22 -c 20
If you're looking for sign of DOS attacks, the following show just
the SYN packets on all interfaces:
$ tcpdump 'tcp[13] & 2 == 2'
TIP 48:
Where are the GNU Reference Manuals?
http://www.gnu.org/manual/manual.html
Also worth a look the "Linux Documentation Project"
http://en.tldp.org/
and Red Hat manuals
http://www.redhat.com/docs/manuals/enterprise/
TIP 49:
Setting or Changing the Library Path.
The following contains the settings to be added or deleted
/etc/ld.so.conf
After this file is edited, you must run the following:
$ ldconfig
See "man ldconfig" for more information.
TIP 50:
Working with Libraries in C
Assume the following 3 programs:
$ cat ./src/test.c
int test(int t) {
printf("%d\n",t); return t;
}
$ cat ./src/prog1.c
/*
program: prog1.c dependences: test.c
compiling this program: gcc -o prog test.c prog1.c
Note the libpersonal include should be remove if NOT using
the library
*/
#include
char **argv) {
test(45);
}
$ cat ./include/libpersonal.h
extern int test(int);
Prog1.c needs the test function in test.c To compile, so that both
programs work together, do the following:
$ cd src $ gcc -o prog test.c prog1.c -I../include
However, if you want to create your own static library, then,
run the following:
$ mkdir -p ../lib $ gcc -c test.c -o ../lib/test.o $ cd ../lib
$ ar r libpersonal.a test.o $ ranlib libpersonal.a
or, the ar and ranlib command can be combined as follows:
$ ar rs libpersonal.a test.o
To compile the program with the static library:
$ cd ../src $ gcc -I../include -L../lib -o prog1 prog1.c
-lpersonal
The -I../include tells gcc to look in the ../include directory
for libpersonal.h. and -L../lib, tells gcc to look for the
"libpersonal.a" library.
$ cd .. $ tree src lib include src |-- prog |-- prog1 |--
prog1.c `-- test.c lib |-- libpersonal.a `-- test.o include
`-- libpersonal.h
This was a STATIC library. Often times you will want to use a SHARED
or dynamic library.
SHARED LIBRARY:
You must recompile test.c with -fpic option.
$ cd ../lib $ gcc -c -fpic ../src/test.c -o test.o
Next create the libpersonal.so file.
$ gcc -shared -o libpersonal.so test.o
Now, compile the source prog1.c as follows:
$ cd ../src $ gcc -Wl,-R../lib -L../lib -I../include -o prog2
prog1.c -lpersonal
This should work fine. But, take a look at prog2 using the ldd
command.
$ ldd prog2
libpersonal.so => ../lib/libpersonal.so (0x40017000) libc.so.6
=> /lib/tls/libc.so.6 (0x42000000) /lib/ld-linux.so.2 =>
/lib/ld-linux.so.2 (0x40000000)
If you move the program prog2 to a different location, it will
not run. Instead you will get the following error:
prog2: error while loading shared libraries: libpersonal.so:
cannot open shared object file: No such file or
directory
To fix this, you should specify the direct path to the library. And
in my case it is rather long
$ gcc -Wl,-R/work/souptonuts/documentation/theBook/lib -L../lib
-I../include -o prog2 prog1.c -lpersonal
SPECIAL NOTE: The -R must always follow the -Wl. (-Wl,-R
They always go together
TIP 51:
Actively Monitor a File and Send Email when Expression Occurs.
This is a way to monitor "/var/log/messages" or any file for certain
changes. The example below actively monitors "stuff" for the work
"now" and as soon as "now" is added to the file, the contents of
msg are sent to the user mikechirico@hotmail.com
$ tail -f stuff | \
awk ' /now/ { system("mail -s \"This is working\"
mikechirico@hotmail.com < msg") }'
Or, you can run a program, say get headings on slashdot from the
program "getslash.php" which runs on "192.168.1.155" with account
"chirico". Assuming you have ssh keys setup, then, the following
will send mail from the output:
$ ssh chirico@192.168.1.155 "./bin/getslash.php"|mail -s
"Slash cron Headlines" mchirico@comcast.net
See (TIP 80) for scraping the headings on slash dot and how to get
a copy of "getslash.php". If you still want to use awk:
$ ssh chirico@192.168.1.155 "./bin/getslash.php"| \
awk '{ print $0 | "mail -s \x27 Slash Topics \x27
mchirico@comcast.net "}'
Note the "\x27" is a quote. Maybe you only want articles dealing
with "Linux":
$ ssh chirico@192.168.1.155 "./bin/getslash.php"| \
awk '/Linux/{ print $0 | "mail -s \x27 Slash Topics
\x27 mchirico@comcast.net "}'
For $60, you can get a numeric display from "delcom engineering"
that you can send messages and data to. I get weather information
off the internet and send it to this device.
http://sourceforge.net/projects/delcom/
(Reference TIP 151 for ssh tips)
TIP 52:
Need to Keep Secrets? Encrypt it.
To Encrypt:
$ openssl des3 -salt -in file.txt -out file.des3
The above will prompt for a password, or you can put it in with
a -k option, assuming you're on a trusted server.
To Decrypt
$ openssl des3 -d -salt -in file.des3 -out file.txt -k
mypassword
Need to encrypt what you type? Enter the following, then start
typing and ^D to end.
$ openssl des3 -salt -out stuff.txt
TIP 53:
Check that a File has Not Been Tampered With: Use Cryptographic
Hashing Function.
The md5sum is popular but dated
$ md5sum file
Instead, use one of the following;
$ openssl dgst -sha1 -c file
$ openssl dgst -ripemd160 -c file
All calls give a fixed length string or "message digest".
TIP 54:
Need to View Information About a Secure Web Server? A SSL/TLS test.
$ openssl s_client -connect www.sourceforge.net:443
Above will give a long listing of certificates.
Note, it is also possible to get certificate information about a
mail server
$ openssl s_client -connect mail.comcast.net:995 -showcerts
When you do the above command you get two certificates. If you copy
past both certificates by taking the following contents include
the begin and end show below:
-----BEGIN CERTIFICATE----- .... -----END
CERTIFICATE-----
Then create files "comcast0.pem" and "comcast1.pem" out of these
certificaties and put them in a directory "/home/donkey/.certs",
then, with the openssl src package, in the "./tools/c_rehash" run
$ c_rehash .certs Doing .certs comcast0.pem => 72f90dc0.0
comcast1.pem => f73e89fd.0
Now it's possible to have fetchmail work with these certs.
# # # Sample .fetchmailrc file for Comcast # # Check mail every
90 seconds set daemon 90 set syslog set postmaster donkey #set
bouncemail # # Comcast email is zdonkey but computer account is
just donkey # poll mail.comcast.net with proto POP3 and options
no dns
user 'zdonkey' with pass "somethin35" is 'donkey' here
options ssl sslcertck sslcertpath '/home/donkey/.certs'
smtphost comcast.net
# currently not used mda '/usr/bin/procmail -d %T'
REFERENCE: http://www.openssl.org/
http://www.catb.org/~esr/fetchmail/fetchmail-6.2.5.tar.gz
http://www.madboa.com/geek/openssl/
TIP 55:
cp --parents. What does this option do?
Assume you have the following directory structure
. |-- a | `-- b | |-- c | | `-- d |
| |-- file1 | | `-- file2 | `-- x |
`-- y | `-- file3 `-- newdir
Issue the following command:
$ cp --parents ./a/b/c/d/* ./newdir/
Now you have the following:
. |-- a | `-- b | |-- c | | `-- d |
| |-- file1 | | `-- file2 | `-- x |
`-- y | `-- file3 `-- newdir
`-- a
`-- b
`-- c
`-- d
|-- file1 `-- file2
Note that you can't do this with "cp -r" because you'd pickup the
x directory and its contents.
You probably want to use the "cp --parents" command for directory
surgery, which you need to be very specific on what you cut and copy.
TIP 56:
Quickly Locating files.
The "locate" command quickly searches the indexed database for
files. It just gives the name of the files; but, if you need more
information use it as follows
$ locate document|xargs ls -l
The "locate" database may only get updated every 24 hours. For more
recent finds, use the "find" command.
TIP 57:
Using the "find" Command.
List only directories, max 2 nodes down that have "net" in the name
$ find /proc -type d -maxdepth 2 -iname '*net*'
Find all *.c and *.h files starting from the current "." position.
$ find . \( -iname '*.c' -o -iname '*.h' \) -print
Find all, but skip what's in "/CVS" and "/junk". Start from "/work"
$ find /work \( -iregex '.*/CVS' -o -iregex '.*/junk' \) -prune
-o -print
Note -regex and -iregex work on the directory as well, which means
you must consider the "./" that comes before all listings.
Here is another example. Find all files except what is under the CVS,
including CVS listings. Also exclude "#" and "~".
$ find . -regex '.*' ! \( -regex '.*CVS.*' -o -regex '.*[#|~].*'
\)
Find a *.c file, then run grep on it looking for "stdio.h"
$ find . -iname '*.c' -exec grep -H 'stdio.h' {} \;
sample output --> ./prog1.c:#include
./test.c:#include
Looking for the disk-hog on the whole system?
$ find / -size +10000k 2>/dev/null
Looking for files changed in the last 24 hours? Make sure you add
the minus sign "-1", otherwise, you will only find files changed
exactly 24 hours from now. With the "-1" you get files changed from
now to 24 hours.
$ find . -ctime -1 -printf "%a %f\n" Wed Oct 6 12:51:56 2004 .
Wed Oct 6 12:35:16 2004 How_to_Linux_and_Open_Source.txt
Or if you just want files.
$ find . -type f -ctime -1 -printf "%a %f\n"
Details on file status change in the last 48 hours, current
directory. Also note "-atime -2").
$ find . -ctime -2 -type f -exec ls -l {} \;
NOTE: if you don't use -type f, you make get "." returned,
which when run through ls "ls ." may list more than what
you want.
Also you may only want the current directory
$ find . -ctime -2 -type f -maxdepth 1 -exec ls -l {} \;
To find files modified within the last 5 to 10 minutes
$ find . -mmin +5 -mmin -10
For more example "find" commands, reference the following looking
for the latest version of "bashscripts.x.x.x.tar.gz":
http://sourceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=79320&package_id=80711
See "TIP 71" for examples of find using the inode feature. " $
find . -inum
If you don't want error messages, or need to redirect error messages
"> /dev/null 2>&1", or see "TIP 81".
TIP 58:
Using the "rm" command.
How do you remove a file that has the name "-". For instance, if
you run the command "$ cat > - " and type some text followed by ^d,
how does the "-" file get deleted?
$ rm -- -
The "--" nullifies any rm options.
How do you delete the directory "one", all it's sub-directories,
and any data?
$ rm -rf ./one
Note, to selectively delete stuff on a directory, use the find
command "TIP 57". To delete by inode, see "TIP 71".
TIP 59:
Giving ownership.
How do you give the user "donkey" ownership to all directories and
files under "./fordonkey" ?
$ chown -R donkey ./fordonkey
TIP 60:
Only Permit root login -- give others a message when they try
to login.
Create the file "/etc/nologin" with "nologin" containing the contents
of the message.
TIP 61:
Limits: file size, open files, pipe size, stack size, max memory size
cpu time, plus others.
To get a listing of current limits:
$ ulimit -a
core file size (blocks, -c) 0 data seg size
(kbytes, -d) unlimited file size (blocks, -f)
unlimited max locked memory (kbytes, -l) unlimited
max memory size (kbytes, -m) unlimited open files
(-n) 1024 pipe size (512 bytes, -p) 8 stack size
(kbytes, -s) 8192 cpu time (seconds, -t)
unlimited max user processes (-u) 8179 virtual
memory (kbytes, -v) unlimited
Note as a user you can decrease your limits in the current shell
session; but, you cannot increase. This can be ideal for testing
programs. But, first you may want to create another shell "sh"
so that you can "go back to where started".
$ ulimit -f 10
Now try
$ yes >> out
File size limit exceeded
To set limits on users, make changes to "/etc/security/limits.conf"
bozo - maxlogins 1
Will keep bozo from loging in more than once.
To list hard limits:
$ ulimit -Ha
To list soft limits:
$ ulimit -Sa
To restrict user access by time, day make changes to
"/etc/security/time.conf"
Also take a look at "/etc/profile" to see what other changes can
be made, plus take a look under "/etc/security/*.conf" for other
configuration files.
TIP 62:
Stupid "cat" Tricks.
Also see (TIP 43 and TIP 235).
If you have multiple blank lines that you want to squeeze down to
one line, then, try the following:
$ cat -s
Want to number the lines?
$ cat -n
Want to show tabs?
$ cat -t
Need to mark end of lines by "$"? The following was suggested by
(Amos Shapira)
$ cat -e
Want to see all the ctl characters?
/* ctlgen.c
Program to generate ctl characters.
Compile:
gcc -o ctlgen ctlgen.c
Run:
./ctlgen > mout
Now see the characters:
cat -v mout
Here's a sample output:
$ cat -v mout|tail
test M-v test M-w test M-x test M-y test M-z test M-{
test M-| test M-} test M-~ test M-^?
*/ #include
int i;
for(i=0; i < 256; ++i)
printf("test %c \n",i);
return 0;
}
TIP 63:
Guard against SYN attacks and "ping".
As root do the following:
echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/tcp_syncookies
Want to disable "ping" ?
echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/icmp_echo_ignore_all
Disable broadcast/multicast "ping" ?
echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/icmp_echo_ignore_broadcasts
And to enable again:
echo 0 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/icmp_echo_ignore_all
TIP 64:
Make changes to .bash_profile and need to update the current session?
$ source .bash_profile
With the above command, the user does not have to logout.
TIP 65:
What are the Special Shell Variables?
$# The number of arguments. $@ All arguments, as
separate words. $* All arguments, as one word. $$ ID of
the current process. $? Exit status of the last command.
$0,$1,..$9,${10},${11}...${N} Positional parameters. After
"9" you must use the ${k} syntax.
Note that 0 is true. For example if you execute the following,
which is true you get zero.
$ [[ -f /etc/passwd ]] $ echo $? 0
And the following is false, which returns a 1.
$ [[ -f /etc/passwdjabberwisnohere ]] $ echo $? 1
So true=0 and false=1.
Sample program "mdo" to show the difference between "$@" and "$*"
#!/bin/bash function myarg {
echo "$# in myarg function"
} echo -e "$# parameters on the cmd line\n" echo -e "calling:
myarg \"\$@\" and myarg \"\$*\"\n" myarg "$@" myarg "$*" echo -e
"\ncalling: myarg \$@ and myarg \$* without quotes\n" myarg $@
myarg $*
The result of running "./mdo one two". Note that when quoted, myarg
"$*", returns 1 ... all parameters are smushed together as one word.
[chirico@third-fl-71 theBook]$ ./mdo one two 2 parameters
on the cmd line
calling: myarg "$@" and myarg "$*"
2 in myarg function 1 in myarg function
calling: myarg $@ and myarg $* without quotes
2 in myarg function 2 in myarg function
Example program "mdo2" shows how the input separator can be changed.
#!/bin/bash IFS=| echo -e "$*\n" IFS=, echo -e "$*\n" IFS=\;
echo -e "$*\n" IFS=$1 echo -e "$*\n"
[chirico@third-fl-71 theBook]$ ./mdo2 one two three four
five one two three four five
one,two,three,four,five
one;two;three;four;five
oneotwoothreeofourofive
TIP 66:
Replace all "x" with "y" and all "y" with "x" in file data.
$ cata data
x y y x
$ tr "xy" "yx" < data
y x x y
TIP 67:
On a Linux 2.6.x Kernel, how do you directly measure disk activity,
and where is this information documented?
o The information is documented in the kernel source
./Documentation/iostats.txt
o The new way of getting this info in 2.6.x is
$ cat /sys/block/hda/stat
151121 5694 1932358 796675 37867 76770 916994 8353762 0
800672 9150437
Field 1 -- # of reads issued
This is the total number of reads completed successfully.
Field 2 -- # of reads merged, field 6 -- # of writes merged
Reads and writes which are adjacent to each other may
be merged for efficiency. Thus two 4K reads may become
one 8K read before it is ultimately handed to the disk,
and so it will be counted (and queued) as only one I/O.
This field lets you know how often this was done.
Field 3 -- # of sectors read
This is the total number of sectors read successfully.
Field 4 -- # of milliseconds spent reading
This is the total number of milliseconds spent by
all reads (as measured from __make_request() to
end_that_request_last()).
Field 5 -- # of writes completed
This is the total number of writes completed
successfully.
Field 7 -- # of sectors written
This is the total number of sectors written successfully.
Field 8 -- # of milliseconds spent writing
This is the total number of milliseconds spent by
all writes (as measured from __make_request() to
end_that_request_last()).
Field 9 -- # of I/Os currently in progress
The only field that should go to zero. Incremented as
requests are given to appropriate request_queue_t and
decremented as they finish.
Field 10 -- # of milliseconds spent doing I/Os
This field is increases so long as field 9 is nonzero.
Field 11 -- weighted # of milliseconds spent doing I/Os
This field is incremented at each I/O start, I/O
completion, I/O merge, or read of these stats by the
number of I/Os in progress (field 9) times the number
of milliseconds spent doing I/O since the last update of
this field. This can provide an easy measure of both I/O
completion time and the backlog that may be accumulating.
Note, this is device specific.
TIP 68:
Passing Outbound Mail, plus Masquerading User and Hostname.
Here's a specific example:
How does one send and receive Comcast email from a home Linux
box, which uses Comcast as the ISP, if the local account on the
Linux box is different from the Comcast email. For instance,
the account on the Linux box is "chirico@third-fl-71" and the
Comcast email account is "mchirico@comcast.net". Note both
the hostname and username are different.
So, the user "chirico" using "mutt", "elm" or any email program
would like to send out email to say "donkey@comcast.net";
yet, donkey would see the email from "mchirico@comcast.net"
and not "chirico@third-fl-71" but chirico@third-fl-71 would
get the replies.
For a full description of how to solve this problem, including
related "sendmail.mc", "site.config.m4", "genericstable",
"genericsdomain", ".procmailrc", and ".forward" files, reference
the following:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/README_COMCAST_EMAIL.txt?download
Included in the above link are instructions for building sendmail
with "SASL" and "STARTTLS".
TIP 69:
How do you remove just the last 2 lines from a file and save
the result?
$ sed '$d' file | sed '$d' > savefile
Or, as Amos Shapira pointed out, it's much easier with the head
command.
$ head -2 file
And, of course, removing just the last line
$ sed '$d' file > savefile
(See REFERENCES (13))
How do you remove extra spaces at the end of a line?
$ sed 's/[ ]*$//g'
How do you remove blank lines, or lines with just spaces and tabs,
saving the origional file as file.backup?
$ perl -pi.backup -e "s/^(\s)*\n//" file
Or, you may want to remove empty spaces and tabs at the end of a line
$ perl -pi.backup -e "s/(\s)*\n/\n/" file
Or, you may want to converts dates of the format 01/23/2007 to the
format 2007-01-23. This is MySQL's common date format.
$ perl -pi.backup -e "s|(\d+)/(\d+)/(\d+)|\$3-\$2-\$1|" file
Note, you need a backslash \$3,\$2,\$1 so as to not get bash shell
substitution.
TIP 70:
Generating Random Numbers.
$ od -vAn -N4 -tu4 < /dev/urandom
3905158199
TIP 71:
Deleting a File by it's Inode Value.
See (PROGRAMMING TIP 5) for creating the file, or
$ cat > '\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'
type some text ^D
To list the inode and display the characters.
$ ls -libt *
To remove by inode. Note the "--" option. This will keep any special
characters in the file from being interpreted at "rm" options.
$ find . -inum
Or to check contents
$ find . -inum
Reference:
http://www.faqs.org/ftp/usenet/news.answers/unix-faq/faq/part2
TIP 72:
Sending Attachments Using Mutt -- On the Command Line.
$ mutt -s "See Attachment" -a file.doc user@domain.net <
message.txt
or just the message:
$ echo | mutt -a sample.tar.gz user@domain.net
Reference:
http://www.shelldorado.com/articles/mailattachments.html
Also see (TIP 51).
TIP 73:
Want to find out what functions a program calls?
$ strace
Try this with "topen.c" (see PROGRAMMING TIP 5)
$ strace ./topen
TIP 74:
RPM Usage Summary.
Install. Full filename is needed.
$ rpm -ivh Fedora/RPMS/postgresql-libs-7.4.2-1.i386.rpm
To view list of files installed with a particular package.
$ rpm -ql postgresql-libs
/usr/lib/libecpg.so.4 /usr/lib/libecpg.so.4.1
/usr/lib/libecpg_compat.so.1
/usr/lib/libecpg_compat.so.1.1 /usr/lib/libpgtypes.so.1
...
Or, to get the file listing from a package that is not installed
use the "-p" option.
$ rpm -pql /iso0/Fedora/RPMS/libpcap-0.8.3-7.i386.rpm
/usr/share/doc/libpcap-0.8.3/CHANGES
/usr/share/doc/libpcap-0.8.3/LICENSE
/usr/share/doc/libpcap-0.8.3/README
/usr/share/man/man3/pcap.3.gz
For dependencies listing, use the "R" option.
$ rpm -qpR /iso0/Fedora/RPMS/libpcap-0.8.3-7.i386.rpm
/sbin/ldconfig /sbin/ldconfig kernel >= 2.2.0
libc.so.6 libc.so.6(GLIBC_2.0) libc.so.6(GLIBC_2.1)
libc.so.6(GLIBC_2.1.3) libc.so.6(GLIBC_2.3)
openssl rpmlib(CompressedFileNames) <= 3.0.4-1
rpmlib(PayloadFilesHavePrefix) <= 4.0-1
To check the integrity, use the "-K" option.
$ rpm -K /iso0/Fedora/RPMS/libpcap-0.8.3-7.i386.rpm
/iso0/Fedora/RPMS/libpcap-0.8.3-7.i386.rpm: (sha1) dsa
sha1 md5 gpg OK
To list all packages installed.
$ rpm -qa
To find out which file a package belongs to.
$ rpm -qf /usr/lib/libecpg.so.4.1
To find the source. (See Tip 246 for more detail)
$ rpm -qi sysstat
To uninstall a package
$ rpm -e
For building rpm packages reference the following:
http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-rpm1/
To verify md5 sum so that you know it downloaded ok
$ rpm -K *.rpm
The following is a good reference:
http://www.redhat.com/docs/books/max-rpm/max-rpm.pdf
http://www.rpm.org/max-rpm/s1-rpm-install-additional-options.html
TIP 75:
Listing Output from a Bash Script.
Add "set -x"
#!/bin/bash set -x ls date
Will list the files and output as follows:
+ ls ChangeLog CVS data test + date Thu Jul 1 20:41:04
EDT 2004
TIP 76:
Using wget.
Grap a webpage and pipe it to less. For example suppose you wanted
to pipe the contents of all these tips, directly from the web.
$ wget -O -
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/How_to_Linux_and_Open_Source.txt?download|less
TIP 77:
Finding IP address and MAC address.
$ /sbin/ifconfig
Note the following output "eth0" and "eth0:1" which means two IP
addresses are tied to 1 NIC (Network Interface Card).
eth0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:50:DA:60:5B:AD
inet addr:192.168.1.155 Bcast:192.168.99.255
Mask:255.255.252.0 UP BROADCAST RUNNING
MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1 RX packets:982757
errors:116 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:116 TX
packets:439297 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0
carrier:0 collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000 RX
bytes:693529078 (661.4 Mb) TX bytes:78400296
(74.7 Mb) Interrupt:10 Base address:0xa800
eth0:1 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:50:DA:60:5B:AD
inet addr:192.168.1.182 Bcast:192.168.3.255
Mask:255.255.252.0 UP BROADCAST RUNNING
MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1 RX packets:982757
errors:116 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:116 TX
packets:439299 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0
carrier:0 collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000 RX
bytes:693529078 (661.4 Mb) TX bytes:78400636
(74.7 Mb) Interrupt:10 Base address:0xa800
lo Link encap:Local Loopback
inet addr:127.0.0.1 Mask:255.0.0.0 UP LOOPBACK
RUNNING MTU:16436 Metric:1 RX packets:785
errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0 TX
packets:785 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:0 RX bytes:2372833 (2.2
Mb) TX bytes:2372833 (2.2 Mb)
TIP 78:
DOS to UNIX and UNIX to DOS.
$ dos2unix file.txt
And to go the other way from UNIX to DOS
$ unix2dos unixfile
See the man page, since there are MAC options.
NOTE: If you're working file DOS files, you'll probably want to use
"zip" instead of "gzip" so users on Windows can unzip them.
$ zip test.zip test.txt
TIP 79:
Need to Run Interactive Commands? Try "expect".
http://expect.nist.gov/expect.tar.gz
This simple example waits for the input "hi", in some form before
returning, immediately, "hello there!". Otherwise, it will wait
for 60 seconds, then, return "hello there!".
#!/usr/bin/expect set timeout 60 expect "hi\n" send "hello
there!\n"
Reference:
http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/expect/chapter/ch03.html
http://www.cotse.com/dlf/man/expect/bulletproof1.htm
TIP 80:
Using PHP as a Command Line Scripting Language.
The following will grab the complete file from slashdot.
#!/usr/bin/php -q
file($fileName) or die ("Cannot open file $fileName\n"); for
($index=0; $index < count($rss); $index++)
{ echo $rss[$index]; }
?>
Note, if you want an example that parses the XML of slashdot,
then, download the following:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/php_scripts.tar.gz?download
TIP 81:
Discarding all output -- including stderr messages.
$ ls > /dev/null 2>&1
Or sending all output to a file
$ someprog > /tmp/file 2>&1
Sometimes, find displays a lot of errors when searching through
directories that the user doesn't have access to. To discard
error messages "stderr", which is normally file descripter "2"
work the following:
$ find / -iname 'stuff' 2>/dev/null
or to pipe results elsewhere
$ find / -iname 'stuff' > /tmp/results_of_find 2>/dev/null
Also see (TIP 118).
TIP 82:
Using MIX. D. Knuth's assembly language/machine-code instruction
set used in his books to illustrate his algorithms.
Download the source:
http://sourceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=13897
$ ./configure $ make $ make install
Documentation can be found at the following link. The link on
sourceforge is not correct, but, the one below works.
http://www.gnu.org/software/mdk/manual/
TIP 83:
Gnuplot [ http://sourceforge.net/projects/gnuplot/ ].
This software is ideal for printing graphs.
gnuplot> set term png gnuplot> set output 'testcos.png' gnuplot>
plot cos(x)*sin(x) gnuplot> exit
Or the following command can be put into "file"
$ cat > file set term png set output 'testcos.png' plot
cos(x)*sin(x) exit ^D
Then, run as follows:
$ gnuplot file
Or, suppose you have the following file
"/home/chirico/data". Comments with "#" are not read by gnuplot.
# File /home/chirico/data # 2005-07-26 1 2.3 3
2005-07-27 2 3.4 5 2005-07-28 3 4 6.6 2005-07-29
4 6 2.5
And you have the following new "file"
set term png set xdata time set timefmt
"%Y-%m-%d " set format x "%Y/%m/%d" set output
'/var/www/html/chirico/gnuplot/data.png' plot
'/home/chirico/data' using 1:2 w linespoints title '1st
col', \
'/home/chirico/data' using 1:3 w linespoints title '2nd
col', \ '/home/chirico/data' using 1:4 w linespoints title
'3rd col'
exit
You can now get a graph of this data running the following:
$ gnuplot file
TIP 84:
CPU Information - speed, processor, cache.
$ cat /proc/cpuinfo
processor : 0 vendor_id : GenuineIntel cpu
family : 15 model : 2 model name :
Intel(R) Pentium(R) 4 CPU 2.20GHz stepping : 9 cpu
MHz : 2193.221 cache size : 512 KB fdiv_bug
: no hlt_bug : no f00f_bug : no coma_bug
: no fpu : yes fpu_exception : yes cpuid
level : 2 wp : yes flags :
fpu vme de pse tsc msr pae mce cx8 apic sep mtrr bogomips
: 4325.37
"bogomips" is a rough but good way to quickly compare two
computer speeds. True it's a bogus reading; but, a "good enough"
for government work calculation. See (TIP 10) for "vmstat" and
"iostat".
TIP 85:
POVRAY - Making Animated GIFs
To see this in action, reference:
http://souptonuts.sourceforge.net/povray/orbit.pov.html
These are the basic command to create:
$ povray orbit.ini -Iorbit.pov $ convert -delay 20 *.ppm orbit.gif
By the way, convert is a program from imagemagick, and it can be
downloaded from ( http://www.imagemagick.org ).
The following is "orbit.pov"
#include "colors.inc" #include "finish.inc" #include
"metals.inc" #include "textures.inc" #include "stones.inc"
#include "skies.inc"
camera {
location < 2, 3, -8 > look_at < 0, 0, 0 > focal_point <0,
0, 0> blur_samples 20
}
light_source {
< 0, 10, 0> color White area_light <2,0,0>,<0,0,2>,
2, 2 adaptive 1 fade_distance 8 fade_power 1 }
sky_sphere {
S_Cloud3
}
plane { <0, 1, 0>, -1
texture {
pigment {
checker color Blue, color White
} finish {Phong_Glossy}
}
} #declare ball0=
sphere { <0.5, 0.5, 0>, 1 texture { T_Silver_1E
pigment {Yellow}
}
}
#declare ball1=
sphere { <3, 2, 0>, 0.5 texture { T_Silver_1E pigment
{Blue}
}
}
#declare ball2=
sphere { <3, 1, 0>, 1 texture { T_Silver_1E pigment
{Green}
}
}
object {ball0 rotate 360*clock*y} object {ball1 rotate
720*clock*y} object {ball2 rotate 360*(1 - clock)*y}
And, "orbit.ini" follows:
Output_File_Type=P
Width=320 Height=240
Initial_Frame=1 Final_Frame=10 Antialias=true
Subset_Start_Frame=1 Subset_End_Frame=10
Cyclic_Animation=on
TIP 86:
GPG -- GnuPG
Reference: http://www.gnupg.org/documentation/faqs.html
http://codesorcery.net/mutt/mutt-gnupg-howto
http://www.gnupg.org/(en)/download/index.html
(SCRIPT 4) on following link:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/README_common_script_commands.html?download
Generage key:
$ gpg --gen-key
Generate public key ID and fingerprint
$ gpg --fingerprint
Get a list of keys:
$ gpg --list-keys
pub 1024D/A11C1499 2004-07-15 Mike Chirico
Encrypt
$ gpg -r Mike --encrypt sample.txt
This will produce "sample.txt.asc", which is a binary file.
Note, I can use "Mike" because that's the name on the list of
keys. Again, it will be a binary file.
Encrypt using "ASCII-armored text" (--armor), which is probably what
you want when sending "in" the body of an email, or some document.
$ gpg -r Mike --encrypt --armor sample.txt
or
$ gpg -r Mike -e -a sample.txt
or
$ gpg --output somefile.asc --armor -r Mike --encrypt --armor
sample.txt
The above 3 statements will still produce "sample.txt.asc", but
look at it, or "$ cat sample.txt.asc" without fear, since there
are no binary characters. Yes, you could even compile a program
"$ g++ -o test test.c" , then, "$ gpg --output test.asc -r Mike
--encrypt --armor test". However, when decrypting make sure to pipe
the results.
$ gpg --decrypt test.asc > test
Export "public" key:
$ gpg --armor --export Mike > m1.asc
Signing the file "message.txt":
$ gpg --clearsign message.txt
Sending the key to the "key-server"
First, list the keys.
$ gpg --list-keys
/home/chirico/.gnupg/pubring.gpg
v------------------ Use this with "0x"
in front -------
pub 1024D/A11C1499 2004-07-15 Mike Chirico
2004-07-15 |
|
v----------------------------------------------------
$ gpg --send-keys 0xA11C1499
The above sends it to the keyserver defined in
"/home/chirico/.gnupg/gpg.conf". Other key servers:
wwwkeys.pgp.net search.keyserver.net
pgp.ai.mit.edu
When you go to your user-group meetings, you need to bring
2 forms of ID, and list your Key fingerprint. Shown below
is the command for getting this fingerprint.
$ gpg --fingerprint mchirico@comcast.net
pub 1024D/A11C1499 2004-07-15 Key
fingerprint = 9D7F C80D BB7B 4BAB CCA4
1BE9 9056 5BEC A11C 1499 uid Mike Chirico
(http://souptonuts.sourceforge.net/chirico/index.php)
Receving keys:
The following will retrieve my mchirico@comcast.net key
$ gpg --recv-keys 0xA11C1499
Special Note: If you get the following error "GPG: Warning: Using
Insecure Memory" , then,
" chmod 4755 /path/to/gpg" to setuid(root)
permissioins on the gpg binary.
NOTE: If using mutt, just before sending with the "y" option, hit
"p" to sign or encrypt.
It's possible to create a gpg/pgp email from the command line. For
a tutorial on this, reference (SCRIPT 4) at the following link:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/README_common_script_commands.html?download
TIP 87:
Working with Dates: Steffen Beyer has developed a Perl and C module
for working with dates
This softare can be downloaded from the following location:
http://www.engelschall.com/u/sb/download/pkg/Date-Calc-5.3.tar.gz
$ wget
http://www.engelschall.com/u/sb/download/pkg/Date-Calc-5.3.tar.gz
$ tar -xzvf Date-Calc-5.3.tar.gz $ cd Date-Calc-5.3 $ cp
./examples/cal.c . $ gcc cal.c DateCalc.c -o mcal
The file cal.c contains sample function calls from DateCalc.c.
Note, "DateCalc.c" is just a list of functions and includes for
"DateCalc.h" and "ToolBox.h".
Or, and this may be easier, just download the following:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/cpearls/date_calc.tar.gz?download
The above link contains a few examples.
TIP 88:
Color patterns for mutt.
The colors can be changed in the /home/user/.muttrc file. The first
field begins with color, the second field is the foreground color,
and the third field is the background color, or default.
An example .muttrc for colors:
# color patterns for mutt color normal white black
# normal text color indicator black yellow # actual
message color tree brightmagenta default # thread arrows
color status brightyellow default # status line
color error brightred default # errors color message
magenta default # info messages color signature magenta
default # signature color attachment brightyellow red #
MIME attachments color search brightyellow red # search
matches color tilde brightmagenta default # ~ at bottom of
msg color markers red default # + at beginning of
wrapped lines color hdrdefault cyan default # default
header lines color bold red default # hiliting
bold patterns in body color underline green default
# hiliting underlined patterns in body color quoted cyan
default # quoted text color quoted1 magenta default
color quoted2 red default color quoted3 green
default color quoted4 magenta default color quoted5
cyan default color quoted6 magenta default
color quoted7 red default color quoted8 green
default color quoted9 cyan default color body cyan
default "((ftp|http|https)://|news:)[^ >)\"\t]+" color body cyan
default "[-a-z_0-9.+]+@[-a-z_0-9.]+" color body red default
"(^| )\\*[-a-z0-9*]+\\*[,.?]?[ \n]" color body green default
"(^| )_[-a-z0-9_]+_[,.?]?[\n]" color body red default "(^|
)\\*[-a-z0-9*]+\\*[,.?]?[ \n]" color body green default
"(^| )_[-a-z0-9_]+_[,.?]?[ \n]" color index cyan default
~F # Flagged color index red default ~N #
New color index magenta default ~T # Tagged color
index cyan default ~D # Deleted
Also see (TIP 190)
TIP 89:
ps command in detail
Here are the possible codes when using state "$ ps -e -o state,cmd"
PROCESS STATE CODES
D uninterruptible sleep (usually IO) R runnable
(on run queue) S sleeping T traced or stopped Z
a defunct ("zombie") process
< high-priority (not nice to other users)
N low-priority (nice to other users) L has
pages locked into memory (for real-time and custom
IO) s is a session leader l is multi-threaded
(using CLONE_THREAD, like NPTL pthreads do) + is
in the foreground process group
For instance:
Note that the -o is for user defined, and -e is for select all
process.
$ ps -e -o pid,state,start,time,etime,cmd
...
9946 S 15:40:45 00:00:00 02:23:29 /bin/bash -i 9985 T
15:41:24 00:00:01 02:22:50 emacs mout2
10003 T 15:43:59 00:00:00 02:20:15 emacs NOTES 10320 T
17:38:42 00:00:00 25:32 emacs stuff.c
...
You may want to command below, without the -e, which will give the
process only under the current terminal.
$ ps -o pid,state,start,time,etime,cmd
Want to find what 's impacting your load?
$ ps -e -o %cpu,pid,state,start,time,etime,%cpu,%mem,cmd|sort
-rn|less
$ ps aux
USER PID %CPU %MEM VSZ RSS TTY STAT START
TIME COMMAND root 1 0.0 0.0 1380 480 ?
S Aug04 0:00 init [3] root 2 0.0 0.0 0
0 ? SWN Aug04 0:00 [ksoftirqd/0] root 3
0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW< Aug04 0:00 [events/0] root
4 0.0 0.0 0 0 ? SW< Aug04 0:00 [khelper]
...
Or, if you want to see the environment add the -e option
$ ps aeux
...
chirico 2735 0.0 0.1 4400 1492 pts/0 S
Aug04 0:00 -bash USER=chirico LOGNAME=chirico
HOME=/home/chirico PATH=/usr/ chirico 2771 0.0 0.0
4328 924 pts/0 S Aug04 0:00 screen -e^Pa -D -R
HOSTNAME=third-fl-71.localdomain TERM=xterm S chirico 2772
0.0 0.6 9476 6352 ? S Aug04 0:54 SCREEN -e^Pa
-D -R HOSTNAME=third-fl-71.localdomain TERM=xterm S chirico
2773 0.0 0.1 4432 1548 pts/1 S Aug04 0:10 /bin/bash
STY=2772.pts-0.third-fl-71 TERM=screen TERMCAP=SC|scre chirico
2797 0.0 0.1 4416 1496 pts/2 S Aug04 0:00 /bin/bash
STY=2772.pts-0.third-fl-71 TERM=screen TERMCAP=SC|scre root
2821 0.0 0.0 4100 952 pts/2 S Aug04 0:00 su -
root 2822 0.0 0.1 4384 1480 pts/2 S Aug04
0:00 -bash chirico 2862 0.0 0.1 4428 1524 pts/3
S Aug04 0:00 /bin/bash STY=2772.pts-0.third-fl-71
TERM=screen TERMCAP=SC|scre sporkey 2946 0.0 0.2 6836
2960 ? S Aug04 0:15 fetchmail chirico 2952
0.0 0.1 4436 1552 pts/5 S Aug04 0:00 /bin/bash
STY=2772.pts-0.third-fl-71 TERM=screen TERMCAP=SC|scre
chirico 3880 0.0 0.1 4416 1496 pts/6 S Aug05
0:00 /bin/bash STY=2772.pts-0.third-fl-71 TERM=screen
TERMCAP=SC|scre root 3904 0.0 0.0 4100 956 pts/6
S Aug05 0:00 su - donkey donkey 3905 0.0 0.1 4336
1452 pts/6 S Aug05 0:00 -bash donkey 3938 0.0
0.2 6732 2856 ? S Aug05 0:14 fetchmail chirico
3944 0.0 0.1 4416 1496 pts/7 S Aug05 0:00 /bin/bash
STY=2772.pts-0.third-fl-71 TERM=screen TERMCAP=SC|scre
...
There is also a -f "forrest" option. Also note below " -bash"
is the start of a login shell.
$ ps aeuxwwf
The ww option above gives a wide format with all variables. Use the
above command if you plan to parse through a Perl script. Otherwise,
it may be easier to do a quick read using the command below, without
"ww".
$ ps aeuxf
...
root 2339 0.0 0.1 3512 1444 ? S Dec01
0:00 /usr/sbin/sshd root 25651 0.0 0.1 6764 1980 ?
S Dec23 0:00 \_ /usr/sbin/sshd chirico 25653 0.0 0.2
6840 2236 ? S Dec23 0:14 \_ /usr/sbin/sshd
chirico 25654 0.0 0.1 4364 1440 pts/4 S Dec23
0:00 \_ -bash USER=chirico LOGNAME=chirico
HOME=/home/chirico chirico 25690 0.0 0.0 4328 920
pts/4 S Dec23 0:00 \_ screen -e^Pa
-D -R HOSTNAME=third-fl-71.localdomain TERM=xterm root
2355 0.0 0.0 2068 904 ? S Dec01 0:00 xinetd
-stayalive -pidfile /var/run/xinetd.pid
...
It is also possible to list the process by command line. For example,
the following command will only list the emacs processes.
$ ps -fC emacs
UID PID PPID C STIME TTY TIME CMD chirico
5049 5020 0 May11 pts/13 00:00:00 emacs -nw Notes chirico
12368 5104 0 May12 pts/18 00:00:00 emacs -nw dnotify.c
chirico 19792 18028 0 May13 pts/20 00:00:00 emacs -nw
hello.c chirico 14034 27367 0 18:52 pts/8 00:00:00 emacs
-nw How_to_Linux_and_Open_Source.txt
You may also want to consider using top in batch mode. Here the
"-n 1" means refresh once, and the "b" is for batch. The "fmt -s"
is to put it in a more readable format.
$ top -n 1 b |fmt -s >>statfile
TIP 90:
Learning Assembly.
Once you have written the source, assuming the file is "exit.s",
it can be compiled as follows:
$ as exit.s -o exit.o $ ld exit.o -o exit
Here is the program:
# #INPUT: none # #OUTPUT: returns a status code. This
can be viewed # by typing # # echo $? # # after running the
program # #VARIABLES: # %eax holds the system call number #
(this is always the case) # # %ebx holds the return status #
.section .data .section .text
.globl _start
_start:
movl $1, %eax # this is the linux kernel command #
number (system call) for exiting # a program movl $0,
%ebx # this is the status number we will # return to
the operating system. # Change this around and it will
# return different things to # echo $? int $0x80 #
this wakes up the kernel to run # the exit command
After running this program, you can get the exit code.
$ exit $? 0
That is about all it does; but, get the book for more details. The
book is free.
http://savannah.nongnu.org/download/pgubook/
TIP 91:
Creating a sandbox for reiserfstune,debugreiserfs and ACL. Also see
TIP 4.
Assume you have a reisers files system created from a disk file,
which means you have done something like the following:
# dd if=/dev/zero of=disk-rfs count=102400 # losetup /dev/loop4
./disk-rfs # mkfs -t reiserfs /dev/loop4 # mkdir /fs2 # mount
-o loop,acl ./disk-rfs /fs2
Now, you can run reiserfstune. But, first you will need to umount fs2
# umount /fs2 # reiserfstune ./disk-rfs
Or you can run the debug command
# debugreiserfs -J ./disk-rfs
Now, suppose you run through a lot of the debug options on
http://www.namesys.com/ and you destroy this file.
You can recreate the file and delete the loop device.
# dd if=/dev/zero of=disk-rfs count=102400 # losetup -d
/dev/loop4 # mount -o loop,acl ./disk-rfs /fs2
Now, try working with some of the ACL options - you can only do
this with the latest kernel and tools -- Fedora Core 2 will work.
Assume you have 3 users, donkey, chirico and bozo2. You can give
everyone rights to this file system as follows:
# setfacl -R -m d:u:donkey:rwx,d:u:chirico:rwx,d:u:bozo2:rwx
/fs2
TIP 92:
SpamAssassin - Setup.
Step 1.
Installing the SpamAssassin CPAN utility. You will need to
do this as root.
$ su -
Once you have root privileges invoke cpan.
# perl -MCPAN -e shell
cpan>
Now install with prerequisites policy set to ask.
cpan> o conf prerequisites_policy ask
cpan> install Mail::SpamAssassin
You will get lots of output as the necessary modules are
downloaded and compiled and installed.
Step 2.
Configuration.
Edit the following "/etc/mail/spamassassin/local.cf"
Here is a look at my file
$ cat /etc/mail/spamassassin/local.cf
# This is the right place to customize
your installation of SpamAssassin. # #
See 'perldoc Mail::SpamAssassin::Conf'
for details of what can be # tweaked. #
###########################################################################
# # rewrite_subject 0 # report_safe 1 # trusted_networks
212.17.35. #
# Below added from book # You may want to set this to 5,
then, work your way down. # Currently I have this 3
required_hits 3
# This determines how spam is reported. Currently safe
email is reported # in the message. report_safe 1
# The will rewrite the tag of the spam message.
rewrite_subject 1
# By default, SpamAssassin will run RBL checks. If your
ISP already # does this, set this to 1. skip_rbl_checks 0
Step 3.
Update .procmail.
You should update the .procmail file as follows. Here is my
/home/chirico/.procmail file.
$ cat /home/chirico/.procmailrc
PATH=/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local/bin
MAILDIR=/var/spool/mail DEFAULT=/var/spool/mail/chirico
LOGFILE=/home/chirico/MailBAG MYHOME=/home/chirico #
Must have folder MailTRASH TRASH=/home/chirico/MailTRASH
# Will get everything from this mail :0 *
^From:.*sporkey@comcast.net
$DEFAULT
# Spamassassin :0fw * <300000 |/usr/local/bin/spamassassin
Reference:
http://pm-doc.sourceforge.net/
TIP 93:
Make Graphs: using dot and neato.
$ dot -Tpng dotfile -o myout.png
To see the output reference the following:
http://souptonuts.sourceforge.net/code/myout.png
Where "dotfile" is the following:
$ cat dotfile
digraph g {
node [shape = record];
node0 [ label ="
label ="
"]; node2 [ label ="
label ="
"]; node10 [ label ="
label ="
"node0":f0 -> "node1":f1; "node0":f2 -> "node2":f1;
"node1":f0 -> "node4":f1; "node1":f2 -> "node6":f1;
"node4":f0 -> "node7":f1; "node4":f2 -> "node3":f1;
"node2":f0 -> "node5":f1; "node2":f2 -> "node9":f1;
"node9":f0 -> "node8":f1; "node9":f2 -> "node10":f1;
}
Checkout the following article:
http://www.linuxjournal.com/article.php?sid=7275
To download this software
http://www.graphviz.org/
TIP 94:
Makefile: working with conditions
First note that all the indentations of the file must be a single
tab. There cannot be any spaces, or make will not run.
$ cat Makefile
# Compiler flags sqliteLIB := $(shell ls
/usr/local/lib/libsqlite.so) sqlite3LIB := $(shell ls
/usr/local/lib/libsqlite3.so) # all assumes sqlite and sqlite3
are installed #
test: ifeq ("$(sqlite3LIB)","/usr/local/lib/libsqlite3.so")
@echo -e "True -- we found the file"
else
@echo "False -- we did not find the file"
endif
So, if I run make I will get the following output.
$ make True -- we found the file
This is because I have a file /usr/local/lib/libsqlite3.so on
my system. Note how the assignment is made, with the shell command
sqlite3LIB := $(shell ls /usr/local/lib/libsqlite3.so)
TIP 95:
Bash: Conditional Expressions
if [ -e /etc/ntp.conf ]
then
echo "You have the ntp config file"
else
echo "You do not have the ntp config file"
fi
Now using an AND condition inside the [ ]. By the way, above,
you can put the "then" on the same line as the if "if [ -e
/etc/ntp.conf ]; then" as long as you use the ";".
if [ \( -e /etc/ntp.conf \) -a \( -e /etc/ntp/ntpservers \) ]
then
echo "You have ntp config and ntpservers"
elif [ -e /etc/ntp.conf ]; then
echo " You just have ntp.conf "
elif [ -e /etc/ntp/ntpservers ]; then
echo " You just have ntpservers "
else
echo " you have neither ntp.conf or ntpservers"
fi
A few things to note above. Else if statement is written as
"elif", and when dealing with "(" you will need to insert
"\(". By the way "-o" can replace "-a" and the "-o" is for OR
condition. AND can be done as follows too.
if [ -e /etc/ntp.conf ] && [ -e /etc/ntp/ntpservers ]
then
echo "You have ntp config and ntpservers"
elif [ -e /etc/ntp.conf ]; then
echo " You just have ntp.conf "
elif [ -e /etc/ntp/ntpservers ]; then
echo " You just have ntpservers "
else
echo " you have neither ntp.conf or ntpservers"
fi
Conditional Expressions (files).
-b file True if file exists and is a block file -c file
True if file exists and is a character device file -d file
True if file exists and is a directory -e file True
if file exists -f file True if file exists and is a
regular file -g file True if file exists and is set
goup id -G file True if owned by the effective group ID
-k file True if "sticky" bit is set and file exists
-L file True if file exists and is a symbolic link -n
string True if string is non-null
-O file Ture if file exists and is owned by the
effective user ID
-p file True if file is a named pipe (FIFO) -r file
True if file is readable -s file True if file has size >
0 -S file True if file exists and is a socket
-t file True if file is open and refers to a terminal.
-u file True if setuid bit is set -w file True
if file exists and is writeable -x file True if file
executable -x dir True if directory can be searched
file1 -nt file2 True if file1 modification date newer
than file2 file1 -ot file2 True if file1 modification
date older than file2 file1 -ef file2 True if file1
and file2 have same inode
Conditional Expressions (Integers).
-lt Less than -le Less than or equal -eq Equal -ge
Greater than or equal -gt Greater than -ne Not equal
Example usage.
#!/bin/bash
{
while read num value; do
if [ $num -gt 2 ]; then
echo $value
fi
done
} < somefile
Conditional Expressions (Strings).
str1 = str2 str1 matches str2 str1 != str2 str1 does
not matches str2 str1 < str2 str1 is less than str2 str1
> str2 str1 is greater than str2 -n str1 str1
is not null (length greater than 0) -z str1 str1
is null (las length 0)
TIP 96:
CVS: Working with cvs
INITIAL REPOSITORY:
To create a repository, and this is normally done by the system
admin. This is NOT creating a project to checkout, but the location
where everything will be stored! The initial repository!
cvs -d repository_root_directory init
Or here is a specific example:
cvs -d /work/cvsREPOSITORY/ init
Creating a directory tree from scratch. For a new project, the
easiest thing to do is probably to create an empty directory
structure, like this:
$ mkdir sqlite_examples $ mkdir sqlite_examples/man $
mkdir sqlite_examples/testing
After that, you use the import command to create the corresponding
(empty) directory structure inside the repository:
$ cd
-m "Created directory structure" yoyodyne/dir yoyo start
Or, here is a specific example.
$ cd sqlite_examples $ cvs -d /work/cvsREPOSITORY/ import
-m 'test SQlite' sqlite_examples sqlite_examples start
Now, you can delete the directory sqlite_examples, or go to
another directory and type the following:
$ cvs -d /work/cvsREPOSITORY/ co sqlite_examples
COOL TOOLS:
1. cvsps 2. cvsreport
cvsps which you can find at
http://www.cobite.com/cvsps/cvsps-2.0rc1.tar.gz
$ cvsps -f README_sqlite_tutorial.html
TIP 97:
Common vi and vim commands
Command mode ESC
dd delete u undelete y yank (copy
to buffer) p/P p before cursor/P after cursor
Ctl-g show current line number shft-G end of file
n shft-G move to line n
/stuff/ search
n repeat in same direction N repeat in opposite
direction /return repeat seach forward ?return repeat
seach backward
"dyy Yank current line to buffer d "a7yy Yank next 7
lines to buffer a
or
:1,7ya a Yank [ya] lines 1,7 to buffer a :1,7ya b Yank
[ya] lines 1,7 to buffer b
:5 pu b Put [pu] buffer b after line 5
"dP Put the content of buffer d before cursor "ap Put
the contents of buffer a after cursor
:1,4 w! file2 Write lines 1,4 to file2 :1,3
:set nu Display line numbers :set nonum Turns
off display
:e
vim
:split :split
ctl-w To move between windows ctl-w+ ctl-w- To
change size ctl+wv Split windows vertically ctl-wq
Close window
:only To view only 1 window
vim dictionary - put the following command in ~/.vimrc
set dictionary+=/usr/share/dict/words set
thesaurus+=/usr/share/dict/words
Now, after you type a word
go back in the listing
butter
TIP 98:
Using apt-get
$ apt-get update $ apt-get -s install
everything is ok, then, remove the s
Note you may want to use dpkg to purge if you have to do a reinstall.
$ dpkg --purge exim4-base $ dpkg --purge exim4-config $
apt-get install exim4
$ dpkg-reconfigure exim4-config
TIP 99:
Mounting a cdrom on openbsd and installing packages
$ mkdir -p /cdrom $ mount /dev/cd0a /cdrom $ cd /cdrom
To add packages
$ pkg_add -v
Mounting a cdrom on linux to a user's home sub-directory:
$ mkdir -p /home/chirico/cdrom $ mount /dev/cdrom
/home/chirico/cdrom
TIP 100:
Creating a boot floppy for knoppix cd:
$ dd if=/mnt/cdrom/KNOPPIX/boot.img of=/dev/fd0 bs=1440k
References:
http://www.knoppix.net/docs/index.php/BootFloppyHowTo
For a lot of the knoppix how-to's
http://www.knoppix.net/docs/index.php/
TIP 101:
Diction and Style Tools for Linux http://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/diction/
$ diction mytext|less
Or, this can be done interactively
$ diction This is more text to read and you can do with it what
you want. (stdin):1: This is more text to read and you [can ->
(do not confuse with "may")] do with it what you want.
DESCRIPTION
Diction finds all sentences in a document, that contain phrases
from a database of frequently misused, bad or wordy diction.
It further checks for double words. If no files are given,
the document is read from standard input. Each found phrase
is enclosed in [ ] (brackets). Suggestions and advice, if any,
are printed headed by a right arrow ->. A sentence is a sequence
of words, that starts with a capitalised word and ends with a full
stop, double colon, question mark or exclaimation mark. A single
letter followed by a dot is considered an abbreviation, so it
does not terminate a sentence. Various multi-letter abbrevia-
tions are recognized, they do not terminate a sentence as well.
TIP 102:
Using a mail alias.
Suppose all root mail on your system to go to one root account
root@main.com
In the following file:
/etc/aliases
Add this line
root: root@main.com
Next, run newaliases [/usr/bin/newaliases] as follows:
$ newaliases
Special note: It's possible to send mail to more than one
address. Suppose you want
mail going to root@main.com above, plus you want
it going to user donkey on the local system.
root: root@main.com donkey
TIP 103:
Chrony - this service is similiar to ntp. It keeps accurate time
on your computer against a very accurate clock in across a
network with various time delays.
Reference: http://go.to/chrony
In the file "/etc/chrony/chrony.conf" add/replace the following
server 146.186.218.60 server 128.118.25.3 server 128.2.129.21
Next start the chrony service
$ /etc/init.d/chrony restart
Next verify that this is working. It may take 20 or 30 minutes to
update the clock.
Shell command:
# chronyc chronyc> sourcestats 210 Number of sources = 3 Name/IP
Address NP NR Span Frequency Freq Skew Std Dev
========================================================================
b50.cede.psu.edu 2 0 64 0.000 2000.000
4000ms otc2.psu.edu 2 0 66 0.000
2000.000 4000ms FS3.ECE.CMU.EDU 2 0 64
0.000 2000.000 4000ms chronyc>
It is probably best to let chrony do its work. However, if you want
to set both the hardware and software clock, the following will work:
Sets the hardware clock
# hwclock --set --date="12/10/04 10:18:05"
Sync the hardware clock to software
# hwclock --hctosys
Normally the system keep accurate time with the software clock.
TIP 104:
NFS mount
SERVER (192.168.1.182)
Make sure nfs is running on the server
$ /etc/init.d/nfs restart
At the server the contents of /etc/exports for allowing 2 computers
(192.168.1.171 and 192.168.1.71) to access the home directory of
this server. Note that read write (rw) access is allowed.
$ cat /etc/exports
/home 192.168.1.171(rw) /home 192.168.1.71(rw)
Or, if you have a lot of clients on 192.168.1.* then consider
the following:
/home 192.168.1.0/255.255.252.0(rw)
Next, still at the server, run the exportfs command
$ exportfs -rv
IPTABLES (lokkit). If you're using fedora with default lokkit
firewall
then you can put the following under "Other ports".
Other ports nfs:tcp nfs:udp
If the above does not work or you are not using lokkit
IPTABLES (values in /etc/sysconfig/iptables on SERVER )
# NFS Need to accept fragmented packets and may not have header #
so you will not know where they are coming from -A INPUT -f -j
ACCEPT -A INPUT -p tcp -m tcp -s 192.168.1.171 -m multiport
--dports 111,683,686,685,1026,2049,2219 -j ACCEPT -A INPUT
-p tcp -s 192.168.1.171 -d 0/0 --dport 32765:32768 -j ACCEPT
-A INPUT -p udp -m udp -s 192.168.1.171 -m multiport --dports
111,683,686,685,1026,2049,2219 -j ACCEPT -A INPUT -p udp -s
192.168.1.171 -d 0/0 --dport 32765:32768 -j ACCEPT
-A INPUT -f -j ACCEPT -A INPUT -p tcp -m tcp -s 192.168.1.71 -m
multiport --dports 111,683,686,685,1026,2049,2219 -j ACCEPT
-A INPUT -p tcp -s 192.168.1.71 -d 0/0 --dport 32765:32768
-j ACCEPT -A INPUT -p udp -m udp -s 192.168.1.71 -m multiport
--dports 111,683,686,685,1026,2049,2219 -j ACCEPT -A INPUT -p
udp -s 192.168.1.71 -d 0/0 --dport 32765:32768 -j ACCEPT
(Reference: http://nfs.sourceforge.net/nfs-howto/server.html)
and
(Reference: http://nfs.sourceforge.net/nfs-howto/security.html)
CLIENT1 (192.168.1.171)
$ mkdir -p /home2
$ cat /etc/fstab
192.168.1.182:/home /home2 nfs rw 0 0
$ mount -a -t nfs
Or to do a one time mounting by hand
$ mount -t nfs 192.168.1.182:/home /home2
Now /home2 on the client will be /home on the server
Reference:
http://nfs.sourceforge.net/nfs-howto/index.html
MONITOR NFS:
To monitor the client:
$ nfsstat -c
Also note you can "cat /proc/net/rpc/nfs" as well.
To monitor the server (note the -s instead of the -c).
$ nfsstat -s
Also note you can "cat /proc/net/rpc/nfsd" as well.
The following "cat" command is done on the NFS server, and
shows which clients are mounting. This does not go with examples
above. By the way, "root_squash" is the default, and means that
root access on the clients is denied. So, how does the client root
get access to these filesystems? You have to "su -
$ cat /proc/fs/nfs/exports # Version
1.1 # Path Client(Flags) # IPs /home
192.168.1.102(rw,root_squash,sync,wdelay) /home
squeezel.squeezel.com(rw,root_squash,sync,wdelay)
/home 192.168.1.106(rw,root_squash,sync,wdelay) /home
livingroom.squeezel.com(rw,root_squash,sync,wdelay)
/home 10.8.0.1(rw,root_squash,sync,wdelay) /home
closet.squeezel.com(rw,root_squash,sync,wdelay)
(Reference:
http://www.vanemery.com/Linux/NFSv4/NFSv4-no-rpcsec.html#automount )
TIP 105:
Ports used for Microsoft products
http://www.microsoft.com/canada/smallbiz/sgc/articles/ref_net_ports_ms_prod.mspx?pf=true
Firewalling?
http://www.microsoft.com/technet/prodtechnol/windowsserver2003/library/ServerHelp/428c1bbf-2ceb-4f76-a1ef-0219982eca10.mspx
To find out common port mappings, take a look at "/etc/services"
To find an extensive list, reference
http://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers
TIP 106:
Man pages: If man pages are formatting incorrectly with PuTTY,
try editing the "/etc/man.config" file with the following changes:
NROFF /usr/bin/groff -Tlatin1 -mandoc NEQN /usr/bin/geqn
-Tlatin1
(Reference TIP 7 for using man)
TIP 107:
Valgrind: check for memory leaks in your
programs. (http://valgrind.org/)
This is how you can run it on the program "a.out" for valgrind
version 2.2.0
$ valgrind --logfile=valgrind.output --tool=memcheck ./a.out
This is how you write the logfile "--log-file" for valgrind-3.0.1
$ valgrind --log-file=valgrind --leak-check=yes --tool=memcheck
./a.out
With C++ programs with gcc 3.4 and later that use STL,
export GLIBCXX_FORCE_NEW only when testing to disable memory
caching. Remember to enable for production as this will have a
performance penalty. Reference http://valgrind.org/docs/FAQ/
TIP 108:
Runlevel Configuring.
The program ntsysv, run as root, gives you a ncurses GUI to
what will run on your system on boot. The chkconfig program
(man chkconfig) has the ability to list which programs are set
to start on the chosen run level.
# ntsysv
# chkconfig
If at this moment you want to see what services are currently
running, then, run the following command:
# /sbin/service --status-all
Note, you can also set these manually. For example, normally you
will have files in "/etc/init.d/" that will take parameters like
"start","stop" "restart".
Take a look at "/etc/init.d/mysql" this file will start and stop
the mysql daemon. So, how does know which run levels, and the
order it gets loaded in the run level to other programs? By the
K
$ ls /etc/rc3.d/*mysql
/etc/rc3.d/K85mysql /etc/rc3.d/S85mysql
So here on my system the start value is 85. Looking in /etc/rc3.d,
which is run level 3, any program with a lower number S84something
will get loaded before mysql.
I manually set the run level as follows for mysql.
# cd /etc/rc3.d # ln -s ../init.d/mysql S85mysql # ln -s
../init.d/mysql K85mysql
# cd /etc/rc5.d # ln -s ../init.d/mysql S85mysql # ln -s
../init.d/mysql K85mysql
Note that I could have chose other numbers as well. "ntsysv"
gives you a graphical interface.
This is a way of doing this with "chkconfig" at the command prompt.
# chkconfig --list mysqld mysqld 0:off 1:off
2:off 3:on 4:off 5:on 6:off
Above you can see it's on. Here's how we would have turned this
on with chkconfig.
# chkconfig --level 35 mysqld on
Reference:
http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-boot.html?ca=dgr-lnxw99-obg-BootFast
TIP 109:
File Alteration Monitor - Gamin a FAM replacement
http://www.gnome.org/~veillard/gamin/
http://www.gnome.org/~veillard/gamin/sources/
****** EXAMPLE NOT COMPLETE *****
Working with fam - file alteration monitor. Mail uses this
to signify
a change in a file's status.
Below is the sample C program ftest.c which can be compiled
as follows:
$ gcc -o ftest ftest.c -lfam
You will need to work with this as root
# ./ftest
Reference:
http://techpubs.sgi.com/library/tpl/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?db=man&fname=/usr/share/catman/p_man/cat3x/fam.z
http://www.devchannel.org/devtoolschannel/04/05/13/2146252.shtml
TIP 110:
glibc - this is the main library used by C, and the following
link below gives you examples on everything from sockets,math,
date and time functions, user environment, and much more.
http://www.gnu.org/software/libc/manual/html_mono/libc.html
How do you know which version of glibc you are running?
#include
{
puts (gnu_get_libc_version ()); return 0;
}
Thanks to Jorg Esser for pointing this out, there is a way to
get the GNU C library version directly, by running the library
name as if it were a command line.
[chirico@v0 ~]$ /lib/libc.so.6
GNU C Library stable release version 2.7, by Roland McGrath
et al. Copyright (C) 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
This is free software; see the source for copying conditions.
There is NO warranty; not even for MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR
A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. Compiled by GNU CC version 4.1.2 20070925
(Red Hat 4.1.2-32). Compiled on a Linux >>2.6.20-1.3001.fc6xen<<
system on 2007-10-18. Available extensions:
The C stubs add-on version 2.1.2. crypt add-on version
2.1 by Michael Glad and others GNU Libidn by Simon
Josefsson Native POSIX Threads Library by Ulrich Drepper
et al BIND-8.2.3-T5B RT using linux kernel aio For bug
reporting instructions, please see:
TIP 111:
nslookup and dig - query Internet name servers interactively.
$ nslookup >chirico.org Server: 68.80.0.6 Address:
68.80.0.6#53
Name: chirico.org Address: 66.35.250.210 >
The nslookup command will query the dns server is
"/etc/resolve.conf" However, you can force a certain dns with
"- server". For example the command below goes to the server
named dilbert
$ nslookup - dilbert >
dig:
dig gives you more information. You should probably use dig instead
of nslookup.
Below I am forcing the lookup from DNS 68.80.0.6 of the name
chirico.org, and note that the query time is return too.
$ dig @68.80.0.6 +qr chirico.org
; <<>> DiG 9.2.1 <<>> @68.80.0.6 +qr chirico.org ;; global
options: printcmd ;; Sending: ;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY,
status: NOERROR, id: 55908 ;; flags: rd; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 0,
AUTHORITY: 0, ADDITIONAL: 0
;; QUESTION SECTION: ;chirico.org. IN A
;; Got answer: ;; ->>HEADER<<- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR,
id: 55908 ;; flags: qr rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 1, AUTHORITY:
2, ADDITIONAL: 2
;; QUESTION SECTION: ;chirico.org. IN A
;; ANSWER SECTION: chirico.org. 5538 IN A
66.35.250.210
;; AUTHORITY SECTION: chirico.org. 30599 IN NS
ns78.worldnic.com. chirico.org. 30599 IN NS
ns77.worldnic.com.
;; ADDITIONAL SECTION: ns78.worldnic.com. 16022 IN
A 216.168.225.218 ns77.worldnic.com. 7 IN
A 216.168.228.41
;; Query time: 155 msec ;; SERVER: 68.80.0.6#53(68.80.0.6) ;;
WHEN: Thu Dec 23 07:48:23 2004 ;; MSG SIZE rcvd: 127
So what if you wanted to know what name the IP address 66.35.250.210
resolves to, when using dns 68.80.0.12.
$ dig @68.80.0.12 -x 66.35.250.210 ... ;;
ANSWER SECTION: 210.250.35.66.in-addr.arpa. 3600
IN CNAME 210.0/24.250.35.66.in-addr.arpa.
210.0/24.250.35.66.in-addr.arpa. 3600 IN PTR
vhost.sourceforge.net.
Above you can see it resolved to "vhost.sourceforge.net"
Reference ( http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/DNS-HOWTO-5.html )
Also see TIP 223.
TIP 112:
Using GNU Autotools - so you can produce the familiar "./configure"
"make" and "make install"
commands. There is also a "make dist".
The program sqlite3api.cc and the rest of this code can
be found at
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/cpearls/autotools.tar.gz?download
A "Makefile.am" is required:
bin_PROGRAMS = sprog sprog_SOURCES = sqlite3api.cc sprog_LDADD
= @INCLUDES@ @SQLIBOBJS@
In addition, a "configure.in" file is required. Note,
AC_CHECK_LIB will check the "libsqlite3.so" file for the
"sqlite3_open" file. Note that "sqlite3", is a shortcut
for "libsqlite3" by convention. If this file is not found,
AC_CHECK_FILE looks for "/usr/local/lib/libsqlite3.a". If this
is found, then, "-lsqlite3" is added to the LIBS environment
variable. Also, "-I/usr/local/include" and "-L/usr/local/lib"
will be added on the command line. This is common when some
one does not have the library in the path. (See TIP 49)
dnl Process this file with autoconf to produce a configure
script. AC_INIT(sqlite3api.cc) AM_INIT_AUTOMAKE(sqliteprog,
1.0) AC_PROG_CXX CXXFLAGS='-Wall -W -O2 -s -pipe'
AC_CHECK_LIB(sqlite3,sqlite3_open,[],found=no)
if test "$found" = "no"; then
AC_CHECK_FILE(/usr/local/lib/libsqlite3.a, found=yes)
if test "$found" = "yes"; then
LIBS="$LIBS -lsqlite3" INCLUDES="$INCLUDES
-I/usr/local/include" EXTRALIB='-L/usr/local/lib'
else
echo "Are you SURE sqlite3 is installed?"
fi
fi
SQLIBOBJS='-Wl,-R/usr/local/lib' AC_SUBST(INCLUDES)
AC_SUBST(SQLIBOBJS) AC_SUBST(EXTRALIB) AC_OUTPUT(Makefile)
To build the configure file, just run the following:
$ aclocal $ autoconf $ touch NEWS README AUTHORS ChangeLog $
automake --add-missing
Now if you want to make a tar.gz file "sqliteprog-1.0.tar.gz",
then all you have to run is the following:
$ make dist
Note: did you ever want to save all the output from a
./configure? Well, it
is automatically saved in the "config.log" file. In fact,
this file may contain a lot more than what you saw on
the screen.
Also, you may need to rerun ./configure. But before you
do, delete the "config.cache" file to get a clean build.
TIP 113:
EMACS - common emacs commands.
M is the ESC C or c is the Ctl
Shell - when working in a shell. "M-x rename-uniquely" is good
for split screen editing.
M-x rename-uniquely Use this for multiple shells (renames
buffer so it's not the same shell) C-c C-z Send
job in background (when working in a shell) C-c C-o
commit-kill-output (gets rid of a lot of shell output) C-c
C-r reposition at beginning of output C-c C-e
reposition at end of output M-x send-invisible Hide passwords
- use this before typing a password
Note: if the shell prompt does not show up correctly, then,
you may want to creat a ".emacs_bash"
file with the following contents:
PS1="emacs:\W \$ "
Directories (C-x d) give you a directory listing. You know all
those annoying "~" and "#"
file that you get? You can easily delete these when
in "dired" mode by hitting "~", then "d" to flag
it for delete. Then, hit "x" to and confirm deletion.
These are other command that work on highlighted
files in "dired" mode.
R rename v view Z compress the file +
create directory
Other common commands:
c-x l list the line you are on, and how many lines
in the document.
You will get something like: Page has 4881
lines (4440 + 442), which means you are on the
4440 line.
c-x rm bookmark make c-x rb bookmark bounce
c-x rb notes c-x rb emacs
c-x /
position in register
register 1) c-x r j 1 (jump to marked point in register 1)
c-x r t
c-x r s 1 (save marked region in register 1) c-x r i 1 (insert
marked region)
c-x c-o (delete all blank lines, except one)
c-x z (repeat the last command ... stop with an a) c-x zz
(repeat the last command twice)
rectangle --------- C-SPC goto the next region C-x C-x then,
C-x r r "name of register"
to insert the register C-x r i "name of register"
macros: ------- c-x ( start macro c-x ) end macro c-x
e execute macro
mail: ----- c-x m mail c-c c-s send
C-x C-e (insert "\n\nExtra Line of text")
;; chirico functions in .emacs ;; This creates an html
template (defun my-html () (interactive) (insert "
") )
Backspace issues when using "emacs -nw"? They putting the following
in your "~/.emacs" file
(global-set-key "\C-d" 'backward-delete-char) (global-set-key
"\C-h" 'backward-delete-char) (global-set-key (kbd "DEL")
'delete-char)
TIP 114:
ncftpget - an intelligent ftp client (http://www.ncftp.com/). Also
check your fedora or debian install. This package
allows you to easily download packages from ftp sites.
This is an example of connect to an ftp site, with a
subdirectory, and downloading all in one command.
$ ncftpget
ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/gnu/gcc/gcc-3.2.3/gcc-3.2.3.tar.gz
Of if you want to get the fedora core 3 installs
$ ncftpget
ftp://ftp.linux.ncsu.edu/pub/fedora/linux/core/3/i386/iso/FC3*
TIP 115:
expr - evaluate expressions. You can use this on the command line
$ expr 6 + 4 10
Note the spaces. Without spaces, you get the following:
$ expr 6+4 6+4
If you're using "*", you'll need a "\" before it
$ expr 10 \* 10 100
This also works for variables
$ var1=34 $ expr $var1 + 3 37
or
$ var1=2 $ var1=`expr $var1 \* 2` $ echo $var1 4
see (TIP 25) you can get the cosine(.23)
$ var1=`echo "c(.23)"|bc -l` $ echo $var1 .97366639500537483696
You can also do substrings:
$ expr substr "BigBear" 4 4 Bear
And length of strings
$ mstr="12345" $ expr length $mstr 5
Regular expressions
$ expr "a3" : [a-z][1-9] 2
Or you can get a bit fancy
$ myexpr="[a-z][1-9]" $ echo $myexpr [a-z][1-9]
$ expr "a3" : $myexpr 2
This may not be the best way to find out if it is Friday,
but it seems to work. It's more of an exercise in xargs.
$ date Fri Dec 31 16:44:47 EST 2004 $ date|xargs -i expr {} :
"[Fri]" 1
TIP 116:
eval
$ mypipe="|" $ eval ls $mypipe wc 6 6 129
Did you catch that? The above statement is the same as
$ ls | wc
Where "|" is put into the variable $mypipe
(also see TIP 118)
TIP 117:
lxr, glimpse, patchset - tools for reading the kernel source
This example puts some of the files in /home/src since my
home partition is the largest. Plus, you do not want to over
write the source in /usr/src/ If you want to put your files
elsewhere just substitute /home/src for your desired directory.
patchset -- download and setup
$ export SRCDIR=/home/src $ cd $SRCDIR $ wget
http://www.csn.ul.ie/~mel/projects/patchset/patchset-0.5.tar.gz
$ export PATH=$PATH:$SRCDIR/patchset-0.5/bin
Now edit "/home/src/patchset-0.5/etc/patchset.conf" and set
WWW_USER to whatever your website runs as
export WWW_USER=nobody
Getting kernel source. The last step builds and asks a lot of
questions. Enter yes to things that interest you, since this
is what you will see in the source code. It is not going to
build for booting. The "downlaod -p" is for downloading a patch.
$ download 2.6.10 $ createset 2.6.10 $ make-kernel -b 2.6.10
glimpse -- download and setup
$ mkdir -p /home/src/glimpse $ cd /home/src/glimpse $ wget
http://webglimpse.net/trial/glimpse-latest.tar.gz $ tar -xzf
glimpse-latest.tar.gz $ cd glimpse-4.18.0 $ ./configure;
make $ make install
lxr -- download and setup
$ make -p /home/src/lxr $ cd /home/src/lxr $ wget
http://heanet.dl.sourceforge.net/sourceforge/lxr/lxr-0.3.1.tar.gz
$ cd lxr-0.3
Edit "Makefile" and set PERLBIN to "/usr/bin/perl" or the
where perl is on your system. Also set INSTALLPREFIX to
"/var/www/lxr". Then, as root do the following:
$ make install
Apache changes
Next edit the apache httpd.conf. On my system it is
"/usr/local/apache2/conf/httpd.conf", but if you
did a fedora install I think this file is located at
"/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf".
Alias /lxr/ "/var/www/lxr/"
Options ExecCGI Indexes Includes FollowSymLinks MultiViews
AllowOverride all Order allow,deny Allow from all
SetHandler cgi-script
lxr - continued "/var/www/lxr/http/lxr.conf" changes.
The following contains
my lxr.conf with changes made to almost every
variable. Make sure you use your website in place of
192.168.1.71
# Configuration file.
# Define typed variable "v", read valueset from file.
variable: v, Version, [/var/www/lxr/source/versions],
[/var/www/lxr/source/defversion]
# Define typed variable "a". First value is default.
variable: a, Architecture, (i386, alpha, m68k, mips,
ppc, sparc, sparc64)
# Define the base url for the LXR files. baseurl:
http://192.168.1.71/lxr/http/
# These are the templates for the HTML heading,
directory listing and # footer, respectively.
htmlhead: /var/www/lxr/http/template-head
htmltail: /var/www/lxr/http/template-tail htmldir:
/var/www/lxr/http/template-dir
# The source is here. sourceroot:
/var/www/lxr/source/$v/ srcrootname: Linux
# "#include
the LXR source # tree) incprefix: /include
# The database files go here. dbdir:
/var/www/lxr/source/$v/
# Glimpse can be found here. glimpsebin:
/usr/local/bin/glimpse
# The power of regexps. This is pretty Linux-specific,
but quite # useful. Tinker with it and see what
it does. (How's that for # documentation?) map:
/include/asm[^\/]*/ /include/asm-$a/ map: /arch/[^\/]+/
/arch/$a/
Now you should be ready to run "make-lxr". Make sure the path
is setup to patchset, which is repeated here. The last step
take awhile.
$ export SRCDIR=/home/src $ cd $SRCDIR $ export
PATH=$PATH:$SRCDIR/patchset-0.5/bin
$ make-lxr 2.6.10
Now you need to index the source. Below the ./glimpse_* file
will be put in root. Checkout the -H option if you do not want
them here on a temporary bases of if you run out of room.
$ glimpseindex -o -t -w 5000 /var/www/lxr/source/2.6.10 >&
.glimpse_out
Since the above put the files under /root/.glimpse_* they should
be moved
$ mv /root/.glimps_* /var/www/lxr/source/2.6.10/. $ chown
-R nobody.nobody ./.glimpse_*
TIP 118:
exec - you can change standard output and input without starting
a new
process.
The exec redirect the output from ls and date to a file. Nothing
is show on the terminal until "exec > /dev/tty" is performed
$ exec > mfile $ ls $ date $ exec > /dev/tty
This is an example of assigning file descriptor 3 to file
"output3" for output, then, redirecting "ls" to this
descriptor. Finally, file descriptor 3 is used for input,
and the contents are read into the cat command.
$ exec 3>output3 $ ls >& 3 $ exec 3
How_to_Linux_and_Open_Source.txt.~1.193.~ mfile mfile2 mfile3
mftp output3
Could you redirect the output to 3 files and stderr?
$ exec 3>output3 $ exec 4>output4 $ exec 5>output5
$ ls >& 3 >& 4 >& 5 >& 2 // Nope, can't do this.
output3 output4 output5
Instead, you should do the following:
$ ls | tee output3 | tee output4 |tee output5
Closing the "output" file descriptor
$ >&3-
Closing the "input" file descriptor
$ 3<&-
See what is still open on 0-10
$ lsof -a -p $$ -d 0-10
Recursion - the following counts to 5, then, quits.
#!/bin/bash sleep 1 declare -x n let n=${n:=0}+1 [ $n -le 5 ]
&& echo "$n" && exec $0
There are some real-life applications for this technique,
as follows:
#!/bin/bash declare -x N declare -x n N=${N:=$(od -vAn -N1
-tu4 < /dev/urandom)} let n=${n:=0}+1 [ $(($n%2)) -eq 0 ]
&& echo "She Loves Me!" || echo "She Loves Me NOT!" [
$n -lt $N ] && exec $0
TIP 119:
runlevel - need to know the current runlevel?
$ who -r run-level 3 Dec 31 19:02 last=S
Need to know the architecture?
$ arch i686
TIP 120:
at - executes commands at a specified time.
A few examples here. The 1970 program will run next Auguest 2
even though the year 1970 has long past.
$ at 6:30am Jan 12 < program $ at noon tomorrow < program $
at 1970 pm August 2 < program
This is an interactive way to use the command:
$ at now + 6 minutes warning: commands will be executed using
(in order) a) $SHELL b) login shell c) /bin/sh at> ls at>
date > /tmp/5min at> ^D job 3 at 2005-01-01 08:50
What jobs are in the queue?
$ atq
or
$ at -l
TIP 121:
Creating a Manpage
As root you can copy the following to /usr/local/man/man1/soup.1
which will give you a manpage for soup.
.\" Manpage for souptonuts. .\" Contact
mchirico@users.sourceforge.com to correct errors
or omissions. .TH man 1 "04 January 2005" "1.0"
"souptonuts man page" .SH NAME soup \- man page for
souptonuts .SH SYNOPSIS soup .SH DESCRIPTION souptonuts is
a collection of linux and open source tips. off for golf.
.SH OPTIONS The souptonuts does not take any options.
.SH SEE ALSO doughnut(1), golf(8) .SH BUGS No known bugs at
this time. .SH AUTHOR Mike Chirico (mchirico@comcast.net
mchirico@users.sourceforge.net)
So, to view this man page
$ man soup
It's also possible to compress
$ gzip /usr/local/man/man1/soup.1
For plenty of examples look at the other man pages. Also the
following is helpful. The last one is a tutorial "man 7 mdoc"
$ man manpath $ man groff $ man 7 mdoc
TIP 122:
dmesg - print out boot messages, or what is in the kernel
ring buffer.
If you missed the messages on boot-up, you can use dmesg to
print them.
$ dmesg > boot.msg
Or to print, then, clear the ring
# dmesg -c > boot.msg
(also see TIP 20)
TIP 123:
gnus - emacs email nntp news reader (comcast as example with NO
TLS or SSL)
First check that you can connect to the news group:
$ telnet newsgroups.comcast.net 119 Trying
216.196.97.136... Connected to newsgroups.comcast.net.
Escape character is '^]'. 200 News.GigaNews.Com
If you want to check for TLS or SSL see (TIP 54).
Here is a very simple configuration example without
encryption. It appears that comcast does not support ssl or TLS.
In the "~/.emacs" file you would add the following to get
comcast news groups
(setq gnus-select-method '(nntp "newsgroups.comcast.net"))
Then, create an "~/.authinfo" file with the following settings
using you own username and password.
machine newsgroups.comcast.net login borkey@comcast.net
password borkeypass0rd
Next create a "~/.newsrc" with your groups
news.announce.newusers: comp.lang.c++.moderated! 1-500
comp.unix.programmer! 1-500 comp.unix.shell! 1-500
gnu.emacs.gnus! 1-500
Finally, create a "~/.gnus" with the following email settings
for you
(setq user-mail-address "mchirico@comcast.net")
(defun my-message-mode-setup ()
(setq fill-column 72) (turn-on-auto-fill)) (add-hook
'message-mode-hook 'my-message-mode-setup)
To get into gnus
E-x gnus
The following are common gnus commands
RET view the article under the cursor
A A (shift-a, shift a): List all newsgroups known
to the server.
l (lower-case L) : List only subscribed groups
with unread articles.
L : List all newsgroups in .newsrc
file.
g : See if new articles have arrived.
Some commands for reading
n next unread article
p previous article
SPC scroll down moves to next unread
when at the bottom of the article
del scroll up
F follow-up to group on the article you are
reading now.
f follow-up to group without citing the article
R reply by mail and cite the article
r reply by mail without citing the article
m new mail
a new posting
c Catchup
C-u / t Show only young headers
/ t without C-u limits the summary to old headers
T T toggle threading
C-u g Display raw article
hit g to return to normal view
t Show all headers it's a toggle
W w Wordwrap the current article
W r Decode ROT13 a toggle
^ fetch parent of article
L create a scorefile-entry based
on the current article (low score) ? gives you
information what each char means
I like L but high score
Commands to send email
C-c C-c send message
C-c C-d save message as draft
C-c C-k kill message
C-c C-m f attach file
M-q reformat paragraph
TIP 124:
Sending Email from telnet
Note, if you are on the computer you can sometime use the
local loopback. In fact, sometimes you can only use the
local loop back 127.0.0.1 in place of "bozo.company.com"
1 [mchirico@soup Notes]$ telnet bozo.company.com 25 2
Trying 192.168.0.204... 3 Connected to bozo.company.com.
4 Escape character is '^]'. 5 220 bozo.company.com
ESMTP Postfix (Postfix-20010228-pl03) (Mandrake Linux) 6
HELO fakedomain.com 7 HELO fakedomain.com //
server echo 8 250 bozo.company.com 9 MAIL FROM:
test@fakedomain.com
10 MAIL FROM: test@fakedomain.com // server echo 11
250 Ok 12 RCPT TO: mchirico@someother.com 13 RCPT
TO: mchirico@someother.com // server echo 14 250 Ok 15
DATA 16 DATA // echo 17 354 Enter mail, end with
"." on a line by itself 18 This is a test message 19
This is a test message 20 to send 21 to send 22 .
23 250 2.0.0 j0B0uH3L018469 Message accepted for delivery
Above on line 6 you can type in any domain name. Line 7 is an
echo. All echos are listed in the comment field.
TIP 125:
IP forwarding, IP Masquerade
# echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward # ipchains -F
forward # ipchains -P forward DENY # ipchains -A forward -s
192.168.0.0/24 -j MASQ # ipchains -A forward -i eth1 -j MASQ
This assumes that your internal network is 192.168.0.0 on eth1,
and the internet is connected to eth0.
(Also See TIP 182)
TIP 126:
Setting KDE as the default desktop manager
Edit "/etc/sysconfig/desktop" to include the two lines:
DESKTOP="KDE" DISPLAYMANAGER="KDE"
TIP 127:
Have a file and you do not know whay type it is (tar, gz, ASCII,
binary) ? Use the file command. Below it is used on the file
"mftp"
$ file mftp mftp: Bourne-Again shell script text executable
TIP 128:
Software RAID: Two good references
http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Software-RAID-HOWTO-1.html
http://lists.us.dell.com/pipermail/linux-poweredge/2003-July/014331.html
Note, you must setup grub for each RAID 1 device. Suppose you
have 2 SCSI drives (sda and sdb). By default grub is setup on sda;
but, you need to enable it for sdb (/dev/hdb for ide) as follows:
grub>device (hd0) /dev/sdb grub>root (hd0,0) grub>setup (hd0)
Checking if "/boot/grub/stage1" exists... no Checking if
"/grub/stage1" exists... yes Checking if "/grub/stage2"
exists... yes Checking if "/grub/e2fs_stage1_5" exists.. yes
Running "embed /grub/e2fs_stage1_5 (hd0)"... 16 sectors
are embedded.
succeeded
Running "install /grub/stage1 (hd0) (hd0)1+16 p
(hd0,0)/grub/stage2 /grub/grub
.conf"... succeeded. Done.
grub> grub>quit
Checking to see if everything is working:
$ cat /proc/mdstat
Checking the drives
$ sfdisk -d /dev/sdb $ sfdisk -d /dev/sda
$ fdisk -l /dev/sda "This will give general information" $
fdisk -l "General information for all drives"
Adding raid (assume you want to add the first drive "sda1",
or if it is the second
drive then substitute "sda2" below )
$ raidhotadd /dev/md0 /dev/sda1 $ raidhotadd /dev/md1 /dev/sda2
$ raidhotadd /dev/md2 /dev/sda3
This is an example of an cat /proc/mdstat that is working. Note
that there is a listing for both sda1[0] and sdb1[1]
$ cat /proc/mdstat
Personalities : [raid1] read_ahead 1024 sectors Event:
12 md0 : active raid1 sda1[0] sdb1[1]
104320 blocks [2/2] [UU]
md1 : active raid1 sda2[0] sdb2[1]
1044160 blocks [2/2] [UU]
md2 : active raid1 sda3[0] sdb3[1]
34411136 blocks [2/2] [UU]
unused devices:
Compare that to this where md2 is missing sdb3
$ cat /proc/mdstat
Personalities : [raid1] read_ahead 1024 sectors Event:
9 md0 : active raid1 sda1[0] sdb1[1]
104320 blocks [2/2] [UU]
md1 : active raid1 sda2[0] sdb2[1]
1044160 blocks [2/2] [UU]
md2 : active raid1 sdb3[1] <---- HERE
34411136 blocks [2/1] [_U]
unused devices:
If you are rebuilding an array, you can watch it by doing the
following:
$ watch -n1 cat /proc/mdstat
Need to know the raid setup?
$ cat /etc/raidtab
TIP 129:
Resetting Redhat Linux Passwords using GRUB
1. Press 'e' 2. Press 'e' again 3. Append 'single' to the
kernel version listing
See
http://linuxgazette.net/107/tomar.html
TIP 130:
mtr - matt's traceroute. This is an advanced traceroute that keeps
[http://www.bitwizard.nl/mtr/]
$ mtr www.yahoo.com
Matt's traceroute [v0.52]
third-fl-71.localdomain
Thu Jan 20 11:05:57 2005 Keys: D - Display mode
R - Restart statistics Q - Quit
Packets
Pings
Hostname %Loss Rcv Snt
Last Best Avg Worst
1. 192.168.1.1 0%
3 3 0 0 0 1 2. ???
3. fe-2-6-rr01.willogrove5.pa.pa01
0% 3 3 8 7 7 8
4. srp-8-1-ar01.willowgrove1.pa.pa
0% 2 2 8 8 8 8
5. pos7-3-cr01.torresdale.pa.core. 0% 2
2 8 8 8 8 6. 12.119.53.53
0% 2 2 12 12 12 13
7. tbr1-p012401.phlpa.ip.att.net 0% 2 2
12 12 13 13 8. tbr1-cl8.n54ny.ip.att.net
0% 2 2 13 13 13 13
9. ggr2-p310.n54ny.ip.att.net 0% 2 2
12 12 13 14
10. so-1-0-0.gar4.NewYork1.Level3.n
0% 2 2 14 14 37 61
11. ae-1-54.bbr2.NewYork1.Level3.ne
0% 2 2 13 12 13 13
12. ge-0-3-0.bbr2.Washington1.Level
0% 2 2 19 19 19 19
13. ge-1-1-51.car1.Washington1.Leve 0%
2 2 18 18 19 20 14. 4.79.228.6
0% 2 2 21 19 20 21
15. UNKNOWN-216-109-120-201.yahoo.c 0% 2 2
21 20 20 21 16. w2.rc.vip.dcn.yahoo.com
0% 2 2 23 21 22 23
TIP 131:
chfn - change finger information
$ chfn
Next you are asked for a password and user information.
TIP 132:
chsh - change login shell
First, you may want to get a listing of all the possible shells.
$ chsh -l
/bin/sh /bin/bash /sbin/nologin /bin/ash /bin/bsh /bin/ksh
/usr/bin/ksh /usr/bin/pdksh /bin/tcsh /bin/csh /bin/zsh
TIP 133:
bash - working with binary, hex and base 3.
For the variable must be declare as an integer. Then specify
the
$ declare -i n $ n=3#22 $ echo $n
8
Base 16 (hex)
$ declare -i n2 $ n2=16#a $ echo $n2
10
Base 8 (octal)
$ declare -i n3 $ n3=8#11 $ echo $n3
9 Note 8+1=9
TIP 134:
monitoring IP traffic. Try iptraf http://iptraf.seul.org/
TIP 135:
enscript - convert text files to PostScript
TIP 136:
dd and tar - blocking factor. How to determine the blocking
factor, block size
so that tar and dd can work together.
Step 1: Create a large file on local disk, in a directory "1"
that will eventually
be written to tape. This will be created with dd as
follows:
$ mkdir 1 $ dd if=/dev/zero of=disk-image count=40960
40960+0 records in 40960+0 records out
$ cd ..
Step 2: tar the directory and contents to tape. First rewind
the tape. These examples
use /dev/nst0 as the location of the tape. Make sure to
substitute your values if needed.
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind $ tar --label="Test 1" --create
--blocking-factor=128 --file=/dev/nst0 1
Step 3: Read data from the tape using a block size of 128k. If
you get an I/O error, which
could happend if you used a different blocking factor
above, then, you may need to increase the bs to 256,
or 512 etc. as needed.
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind $ dd if=/dev/nst0 bs=128k
of=testblocksz count=1
0+1 records in 0+1 records out
$ ls -l testblocksz
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 65536 Feb 9
10:41 testblocksz
$ ls -lh testblocksz
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 64k Feb 9
10:41 testblocksz
Note above that the size 65536 is equal to 64k. That "h"
switch in "ls" is for human readable.
Step 4: tar uses a multiplier of 512*blocking-factor to get block
size. Again
512 * blocking-factor = block size used in dd command.
Putting in the values, we see that
512 * 128 = 65536
Step 5: So what does this tell you? You can now use these numbers
to "dd" files
to tape. But, first tar will be used to create the file
locally.
$ tar --label="Test 1" --create --blocking-factor=128
--file=test.tar 1
Step 6: Send this to tape with the dd command. Remember 64k is
equal to 65536.
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind $ dd if=test.tar bs=64k
of=/dev/nst0
Step 7: Now test that it can be read with tar command using
blocking-factor=128.
Note the "t" command in tar is for tell. It will not
write data.
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind $ tar -tvf /dev/nst0
--blocking-factor=128
V--------- 0/0 0 2005-02-09 10:38:20
Test 1--Volume Header-- drwxr-xr-x root/root 0
2005-02-09 10:34:10 1/ -rw-r--r-- root/root 20971520
2005-02-09 10:34:11 1/disk-image
Step 8: Reading tape data with dd. Most of the time a high "ibs"
input block size
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind $ dd if=/dev/nst0
of=outfromdd.tar ibs=64k
321+0 records in 41088+0 records out
Step 9: Verify that outfromdd.tar can be read by tar with
blocking-factor=128
$ tar -tvf outfromdd.tar --blocking-factor=128
V--------- 0/0 0 2005-02-09 10:38:20
Test 1--Volume Header-- drwxr-xr-x root/root 0
2005-02-09 10:34:10 1/ -rw-r--r-- root/root 20971520
2005-02-09 10:34:11 1/disk-image
PULLING FILES: The dd command can be used to pull files.
ssh target_address dd if=remotefile | dd of=localfile
Or, a specific example of getting a file from a computer
called hamlet.
$ ssh root@hamlet dd if=/home/cvs/test | dd
of=/home/storage/test
GOING BACKWARD AND FORWARD ON TAPE:
Go to end of data
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 eod
Previous record
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 bsfm 1
Forward record
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 fsf 1
Rewind
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind
Tell
$ mt -f /dev/nst0 tell
(Reference TIP 151 - for how to get around firewalls)
Below is a script that I use to backup computers via ssh. The
tape drive is on "nis" and the extra space is on "hamlet".
#!/bin/bash # Program to backup server remotely # Assume
remote server is nis, you are on squeezel # # Recover
from tape # # dd if=/dev/nst0 of=test.tar.gz bs=64k
# filename="support1.$(date "+%m%d%y%H%M").tar.gz"
DIRTOBACKUP=/var/www #tar cvzf - $DIRTOBACKUP | ssh
root@nis '(mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind; dd of=/dev/nst0
bs=64k )' tar cvzf - $DIRTOBACKUP | ssh support1@hamlet
"dd of=/home/support1/backups/${filename} "
Another example program, below, pushes the last ".tar.gz"
file to tape:
#!/bin/bash # Program to push files to tape # # #
Notes on recovering from tape # # dd if=/dev/nst0
of=test.tar.gz ibs=64k # or # $ ssh root@tapeserver
"mt -f /dev/nst0 rewind" # $ ssh root@tapeserver
"dd if=/dev/nst0 ibs=64k"|dd of=cvs1.tar.gz # # # #
First rewind tape ssh root@tapeserver 'mt -f /dev/nst0
rewind' # # Grab only the last file file=$(find /home/cvs
-iname 'cvs*.tar.gz'|sort|tail -n 1) dd if=${file}|ssh
root@tapeserver 'dd of=/dev/nst0 bs=64k'
TIP 137:
Apache - redirecting pages. All changes are in httpd.conf
RedirectMatch (.*)\.gif$ http://www.anotherserver.com$1.jpg
Redirect /service http://foo2.bar.com/service
If more than one DNS record points to the server, then, it's
possible to redirect based upon which DNS entry was used in
the web query.
For example, a single web server has the following three DNS
entries mapped to its single IP address.
dev.mchirico.org notes.mchirico.org
It's possible to redirect or rewrite the page delivered to
the client with the following changes in httpd.conf
RewriteCond %{HTTP_HOST} ^dev.mchirico.org$ RewriteRule
^/$ http://mchirico.org/dev [L]
RewriteCond %{HTTP_HOST} ^notes.mchirico.com$ RewriteRule
^/$ http://mchirico.org/notes [L]
TIP 138:
samba mounts via ssh - mounting a samba share through an ssh
tunnel, going
through an intermediate computer, that accepts ssh. We'll
call this intermediate computer middle [65.219.4.23],
and we want to get to destination [192.168.0.81]. The
user will be mchirico.
STEP 1:
$ mkdir -p /samba/share
STEP 2:
This has to be done as root, since we are using a lower port.
$ ssh -N -L 139:192.168.0.81:139 mchirico@65.219.4.23
STEP 3:
umount /samba/sales /bin/mount -t smbfs -o
username=donkey,workgroup=donkeydomain,
password=passw0rk1,port=139,dmask=770,fmask=660,
netbiosname=homecpu //localhost/share /samba/share
TIP 139:
Music on Fedora Core -- How to play music on http://magnatune.com
with "xmms".
The following command will show the sound driver:
$ lspci|grep -i audio
STEP 1:
Unmute amixer with the following command:
$ amixer set Master 100% unmute $ amixer set PCM 100%
unmute
Note you can also get a graphical interface with
"alsamixer"
$ alsamixer
h,F1 -- for help Esc -- exit Tab -- move to
selections
STEP 2:
Test a sound file "*.au" with aplay. To quickly find
files on your system use the "locate *.au" command.
$ aplay /usr/lib/python2.3/test/audiotest.au
STEP 3:
Install "xmms-mp3-1.2.10-9.2.1.fc3.rf.i386.rpm" which does
not come with Fedora because of GPL license restrictions.
The latest version of this package can be found at the
following url:
http://rpmseek.com/rpm-pl/xmms-mp3.html
$ rpm -ivh xmms-mp3-1.2.10-9.2.1.fc3.rf.i386.rpm
STEP 4:
Go to magnatun "http://magnatune.com/", select genre
and make sure xmms is the default player.
TIP 140:
Routing -- getting access to a network 1 hop away. You are
currently on the 192 network
and you want access to the 172.21.0.0 network
that has a computer straddling the two, with
/proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward set to 1.
$ route add -net 172.21.0.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 gw
192.168.0.204
To undo:
$ route del -net 172.21.0.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 gw
192.168.0.204
Now you can ping 172.21.0.21.
Does not work?
Go on to 192.168.0.204 and execute the following commands:
$ echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward $ cat
/proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward 1
To Look at the the gateway, execute the following command.
$ netstat -r
A quick note. You can assign the default gatway to a specific
device.
$ route add default gw 192.168.1.1 dev eth0
Now suppose you wanted to switch the default gatway to eth1
after doing the above command, then, you would issue the
following two commands:
$ route add default gw 192.168.1.1 dev eth1
$ route del default gw 192.168.1.1 dev eth0
Make sure you add the new gateway first if you're not on the
computer you're working on.
It's also possible to permanently set the gatwaydev
Make changes to:
/etc/sysconfig/network (location of file)
NETWORKING=yes
GATEWAY=192.168.1.1
GATEWAYDEV=eth1
References:
http://lartc.org/lartc.html
TIP 141:
RAM disk -- creating a filesystem in RAM.
$ mkfs -t ext3 -q /dev/ram1 4096
$ mkdir -p /fsram
$ mount /dev/ram1 /fsram -o defaults,rw
TIP 142:
Create a Live Linux CDROM using BusyBox and OpenSSH.
These steps are rather long. A complete tutorial is given
at the following link:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/instructions_boot_system.txt
TIP 143:
SystemImager (http://www.systemimager.org/) SystemImager is software
that automates Linux installs,
software distribution, and production deployment.
TIP 144:
Mounted a filesystem in rescue mode, yet, you cannot read and write?
Remount.
$ mount -o remount /
TIP 145:
Nmap commands to check for Microsoft VPN connection.
$ nmap -sO -p 47 vpn1.someserver.com $ nmap -sS -p T:1723
vpn1.someserver.com
By the way, with nmap you can specify multiple ports. Below is
an example of multiple ports; but, use the commands above for
Microsoft VPN services.
$ nmap -sS -p T:1723-3000
TIP 146:
Perl and ssh - monitoring systems. The output from ssh can be
parsed. Below is a simple procedure to just to read the ssh ouput
into perl.
#!/usr/bin/perl # $pid = open $readme, "ssh root\@hamlet df
-lh|" or die "Could not ssh\n"; while(<$readme>) {
print $_
} close $readme
But note, you probably want to do something more complex. Below
is a more robust example that bypassed all the fortune, heading
junk that you may encounter when logging in.
#!/usr/bin/perl # $pid = open $readme, "ssh root\@hamlet df
-lh 2>/dev/null|" or die "Could not ssh\n"; while(<$readme>) {
print $_
} close $readme
NO! you CANNOT do bidirectional communication with the open
statement. Note the "|" before and after below, which cannot
be done.
# Cannot do this! $pid = open $readme, "|ssh root\@hamlet df
-lh 2>/dev/null|" or die "Could not ssh\n";
Below is a simple Perl example working with arrays:
#!/usr/bin/perl @ArrayOfArray = (
[ "ant", "bee" ], [ "mouse", "mole", "rat"
], [ "duck", "goose", "flamingo" ], [
"rose","carnation","sunflower"],
);
for $i ( 0 .. $#ArrayOfArray ) {
for $j ( 0 .. $#{$ArrayOfArray[$i]} ) {
print "Element $i $j is $ArrayOfArray[$i][$j]\n";
}
}
# Or this is another way to list elements foreach( @ArrayOfArray
) {
foreach $i (0..$#$_) {
print "$_->[$i] " }
print "\n";
}
Below is an example of working with Hash of Arrays:
#!/usr/bin/perl # ./program < /etc/passwd while(<>){
next unless s/^(.*?):\s*//; $HoA{$1} = [ split(/:/) ];
} for $i (keys %HoA ) {
print "$i: @{ $HoA{$i} } \n";
}
Example of regular expression. This is my most used regular
expression - I like this sample. See the "www.unix.org.ua" link
at the end of this tip.
"hot cross buns" =~ /cross/; print "Matched: <$`> $& <$'>\n";
# Matched:
# Left:
If you're looking for Perl information, type "man perl", which
will show you how to get even more information. Or better yet,
take a look at the following link:
http://www.unix.org.ua/orelly/perl/prog3/ch09_01.htm
also
http://www.stonehenge.com/merlyn/UnixReview/
For a quick example on using Perl with SQLite, see the following
links:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/README_sqlite_tutorial.html?download
or
http://freshmeat.net/articles/view/1428/
or
http://www.perl.com/pub/a/1999/09/refererents.html
Standard input for files. This example will read from stdin,
or open a file if given as an argument, and convert all "<" to
"<" and ">" to ">", which can be handy when converting text
files to html files. Note the "while(<>)" will take multiple file
names on the command line.
#!/usr/bin/perl while(<>) {
s/&/&/g; s/</</g; s/>/>/g;
s//>/g; print;
}
Perl Debugger is very useful for testing commands and works like
an interpreter, just like python. So to get into the Perl Debugger
execute the command below, "q" to quit.
$ perl -de 0
Reference TIP 170
TIP 147:
Shutdown
# shutdown 8:00 -- Shutdown at 8:00
# shutdown +13 -- Shutdown after 13min
# shutdown -r now -- Shutdown now and restart
# shutdown -k +2 -- "The system is going DOWN to maintenance
mode in 2 minutes!"
The above is only a warning.
# shutdown -h now -- Shutdown now and halt
# shutdown -c -- Cancel shutdown
TIP 148:
ac - print statistics about users connect time
$ ac -p -- print hour usage by user (individual) $ ac -dy
-- print daily usage
Options can also be combined
$ ac -dyp
TIP 149:
Smart Monitoring Tools: Disk failing? Or want to know the
temperature of your hard-drive?
http://smartmontools.sourceforge.net/
For a good, quick tutorial, see the Linux Journal article
http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/6983
Below are some common commands:
$ smartctl -i /dev/hda
$ smartctl -Hc /dev/hda
$ smartctl -A /dev/hda
TIP 150:
Monitor dhcp trafic - dhcpdump and tcpdump.
Download dhcpdump
$ wget
http://voxel.dl.sourceforge.net/sourceforge/mavetju/dhcpdump-1.5.tar.gz
$ ./configure $ make && make install
Once it's installed, you can monitor all dhcp traffic as follows,
if done with root.
$ tcpdump -lenx -i eth0 -s 1500 port bootps or port bootpc|
dhcpdump
The above assumes you are using eth0 (ethernet port 0).
TIP 151:
Breaking Firewalls with ssh
A sample .ssh/config file (note this must have chmod 600 rights)
## Server1 ## Host 130.21.19.227
LocalForward 20000 192.168.0.66:80 LocalForward 22000
192.168.0.66:22
With the above "~/.ssh/config" file, after sshing into 130.21.19.227
it is then possible to ssh into nearby computers directly.
$ ssh -l mchirico 130.21.19.227 $ scp -P 22000 authorized_keys*
mchirico@localhost:. $ ssh -l mchirico localhost -p 22000
For the complete article reference the following link:
http://souptonuts.sourceforge.net/sshtips.htm
TIP 152:
Renaming files - suppose you want to rename all the ".htm" files to
".html"
$ rename .htm .html *.htm
Or, suppose you files file1, file2, file3 ...
$ touch file1 file2 file3 file4 file5 file6 $ rename file
file. file*
The above command will give you "file.1", "file.2" ... "file.6"
TIP 153:
Renaming files with Perl - this is taken from "Programming Perl
3rd Edition"
#!/usr/bin/perl # rename - change filenames $op = shift; for
(@ARGV) {
$was = $_; eval $op; die if $@; # next line calls built-in
function, not the script rename($was,$_) unless $was eq $_;
}
The above Perl program can be used as follows:
$ rename 's/\.orig$//' *.orig $ rename 'y/A-Z/a-z/ unless
/^Make/' *
Also reference:
http://www.unix.org.ua/orelly/perl/prog3/
TIP 154:
R project (http://www.r-project.org)
To start R, just type "R" at the command prompt and "q()" to
quit. Below 2 is raised to powers 0 through 6 and thrown into
an array.
$ R > N <- 2^(0:6) > N [1] 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 >
There is a summary summary() command.
> summary(N) Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max.
1.00 3.00 8.00 18.14 24.00 64.00
Note that the array begins as 1 and not 0
> N[1:3] [1] 1 2 4
TIP 155:
ls - listing files by size, with the biggest file listed last
$ ls --sort=size -lhr
The above command sorts files by size, listing the contents in
"h" human readable format in reverse order.
Note the options: --sort={none,time,size,extension}
TIP 156:
Perl - program to clean up old versions of files
#!/usr/bin/perl # Copyright (c) GPL 2005 Mike Chirico # This
program deletes old files from several directories # and within
each directory there must be x number of copies # each y number
of bytes #
sub delete_old_ones {
$directory_and_file=$_[0]; $save_count=$_[1];
$bytes_in_file=$_[2];
# Don't change setting here of '-lt'
$pid = open $readme, "ls -lt $directory_and_file|" or die
"Could not execute\n"; while(<$readme>) {
my @fields = split;
# Make sure we have $save_count good ones with data
if ($fields[4] > $bytes_in_file && $save_count > 0) {
$save_count--; print "Kept files: $fields[4]
$fields[8]\n";
}
# delete the old ones if ($save_count <= 0 ) {
print "Deleted files: $fields[4] $fields[8]\n";
unlink $fields[8];
}
} close $readme;
}
@AofA = (
[ "/home/cvs/backups/*.gz", "6",196621 ],
[ "/home/mail/backups/*.gz","5",34 ], [
"/home/snort/backups/*.gz","2",34 ], [
"/home/server1/backups/*.gz","2",34 ], [
"/home/actserver/backups/*.gz","2",34 ], [
"/home/server2/backups/*.gz","2",34 ],
);
foreach( @AofA ) {
&delete_old_ones($_->[0],$_->[1],$_->[2]);
}
Reference TIP 170 and the following link:
http://www.unix.org.ua/orelly/perl/prog3/
TIP 157:
Graphics and Visualization Software that runs on Linux
http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Scientific-Computing-with-GNU-Linux/graphvis.html
TIP 158:
Keeping files in sync going both ways. Unlike rsync, this is not
a one way mirror option.
You will need ocaml installed first.
$ wget
http://caml.inria.fr/pub/distrib/ocaml-3.08/ocaml-3.08.3.tar.gz $
tar -xzf ocaml-3.08.3.tar.gz $ cd ocaml-3.08.3
$ ./configure $ make world $ make opt $ make install
Next, get unison and put it in a different directory.
[http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~bcpierce/unison/]
$ wget
http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~bcpierce/unison/download/stable/latest/unison-2.10.2.tar.gz
$ tar -xzf unison-2.10.2.tar.gz $ cd unison-2.10.2 $ make
UISTYLE=text $ su # cp unison /usr/local/bin/.
Note, you have to copy the file manually.
See the following article [http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7712]
TIP 159:
Dump ext2/ext3 filesystem information with "dumpe2fs". Perform the
mount command and query away.
$ dumpe2fs /dev/sda1
TIP 160:
sysreport - a script that generates an HTML report on the system
configuration. It gathers information about the hardware and is
somewhat redhat specific. The utility should be run as root.
$ /usr/sbin/sysreport
TIP 161:
Key Bindings Using bind. You can bind, say, ctl-t to a command.
Add the following to you "~/.inputrc" file, just as it is typed
below with quotes.
"\C-t": ls -l
Next, run the command
$ bind -f .inputrc
Or, you can do everything on the command line; however, it won't be
there the next time you log in. Below is the way to do everything
on the command line.
$ bind -x '"\C-t":ls -l'
To unbind use the "-r" option. Single quotes are not needed.
$ bind -r "\C-t"
Getting a list of all bindings can be done as follows, and not this
can be redirected to the ".inputrc" file for further editing.
$ bind -p > .inputrc
TIP 162:
awk - common awk commands.
Find device names "sd" or with major number 4 and device name
"tty". Print the record number NR, plus the major number and
minor number.
$ awk '$2 == "sd"||$1 == 4 && $2 == "tty" { print NR,$1,$2}'
/proc/devices
Find device name equal to "sound".
$ awk '/sound/{print NR,$1,$2}' /proc/devices
Print the 5th record, first field, in file test
$ awk 'NR==5{print $1}' test
Print a record, skip 4 records, print a record etc from file1
$ awk '(NR-1) % 4 == 0 {print $1}' file1
Print all records except the last one from file1
$ tac file1|awk 'NR > 1 {print $0}'|tac
Print A,B,C ..Z on each line, cycling back to A if greater than
26 lines
$ awk '{ print
substr("ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ",(NR-1)%26+1,1),$0}' file1
Number of bytes in a directory.
$ ls -l|awk 'BEGIN{ c=0}{ c+=$5} END{ print c}'
Remove duplicate, nonconsecutive line. As an advantage over
"sort|uniq" you can eliminate duplicate lines in an unsorted file.
$ awk '! a[$0]++' file1
Or the more efficient script
$ awk '!($0 in a) {a[$0];print}' file1
Print only the lines in file1 that have 80 characters or more
$ awk 'length < 80' file1
Print line number 25 on an extremely large file -- note it has to
be efficient and exit after printing line number 25.
$ awk 'NR==25 {print; exit}' verybigfile
TIP 163:
Configuring Remote Logging. If you have several servers on
192.168.1.0, you can setup remote logging as follows.
MAIN LOG SERVER (192.168.1.81):
Firewall - allow UDP port 514 on the main server that will
receive the logs.
$ iptables -A INPUT -p udp -s 192.168.1.0/24 --dport 514
-j ACCEPT
Edit "/etc/sysconfig/syslog" and add the "-r" option to
SYSLOGD_OPTIONS as shown below.
SYSLOGD_OPTIONS="-r -m -0"
Note, the "-r" is to allow remote logging and "-m 0" specifies
that that the syslog process should not write regular timestamps.
I prefer to only write timestamps for the clients.
Next, restart the logging process
$ service syslog restart
CLIENT LOG SERVER:
Edit "/etc/syslog.conf" and add the ip address of the log server,
or put in the hostname.
*.* @192.168.1.81
Next, restart the logging process
$ service syslog restart
TIP 164:
kudzu - hardware on your system. To probe the hardware on your
system without doing
anything, issue the following command.
$ kudzu -p
But wait, a lot of this information is already recorded in the
following file
/etc/sysconfig/hwconf
You can also use lspci to list all PCI devices.
$ lspci
Also, take a look at the script /etc/sbin/sysreport, since this
script has a lot of info gathering commands. You can pick and
choose what you want, or run the complete report.
If you just want information on the NIC
$ ip link show eth0 2: eth0:
1500 qdisc pfifo_fast qlen 1000 link/ether 00:11:11:8a:be:3f
brd ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff
TIP 165:
cfengine - a very power agent for monitoring and administrating
both a single computer
and or multiple computers. [ http://www.cfengine.org/ ]
The following is a quick example on downloading and installing
cfengine.
$ ncftpget
ftp://ftp.iu.hio.no/pub/cfengine/cfengine-2.1.15.tar.gz $
md5sum cfengine-2.1.15.tar.gz f03de82709f84c3d6d916b6e557321f9
cfengine-2.1.15.tar.gz
$ tar -xzf cfengine-2.1.15.tar.gz
You need to have a current version of BerkeleyDB
(http://downloads.sleepycat.com/db-4.3.28.tar.gz). Note that
BerkeleyDB has a funny install. You cd to the "build_unix" directory,
then,
Installing BerkeleyDB if needed:
$ wget http://downloads.sleepycat.com/db-4.3.28.tar.gz
$ tar -xzf db-4.3.28.tar.gz $ cd db-4.3.28/build_unix/
$ ../dist/configure make make install
You also need a current version of OpenSSL. For
instructions on how to install OpenSSL see
(http://souptonuts.sourceforge.net/postfix_tutorial.html).
See (TIP 49) on putting "/usr/local/BerkeleyDB.4.3/lib" in the
"/etc/ld.so.conf" file. Or once BerkeleyDB is installed, you can
put the location on the command line as follows:
Configuring cfengine with direct reference to BerkeleyDB.4.3.
First cd to the cfengine source.
$ ./configure --with-berkeleydb=/usr/local/BerkeleyDB.4.3/lib $
make $ make install
Next create the following directories:
$ mkdir -p /var/cfengine/bin $ mkdir -p /var/cfengine/inputs
Copy needed files (cfagent, cfdoc, cfenvd, cfenvgraph, cfexecd,
cfkey, cfrun, cfservd, cfshow):
$ cp /usr/local/sbin/cf* /var/cfengine/bin
You'll also need to generate keys. As root, execute the following:
$ cfkey
The command above will write the public and private keys in
"/var/cfengine/ppkeys".
You probably want (cfexecd, cfservd, and cfenvd) running on all
servers. If you add the following to "/etc/rc.local" these daemons
will start on reboot.
# Lines in /etc/rc.local /usr/local/sbin/cfexecd
/usr/local/sbin/cfservd /usr/local/sbin/cfenvd
Also, make sure you run each command now as follows:
$ /usr/local/sbin/cfexecd $ /usr/local/sbin/cfservd $
/usr/local/sbin/cfenvd
Firewall settings must be adjusted to allows 5308 for tcp/udp. My
local network is 192.168.1.0, so I'm opening it up for all my
computers.
$ iptables -A INPUT -p udp -s 192.168.1.0/24 --dport 5308 -j
ACCEPT $ iptables -A INPUT -p tcp -s 192.168.1.0/24 --dport
5308 -j ACCEPT
A set of keys needs to be on the server and hosts. For example,
my key on "tape.squeezel.com" should be copied over to the server
"squeezel.squeezel.com" as follows:
This is done from tape.squeezel.com
$ scp /var/cfengine/ppkeys/localhost.pub
root@squeezel.squeezel.com:/var/cfengine/ppkeys/root-tape.squeezel.com.pub
$ scp
root@squeezel.squeezel.com:/var/cfengine/ppkeys/localhost.pub
/var/cfengine/ppkeys/root-squeezel.squeezel.com.pub
Also, "/var/cfengine/inputs/cfrun.hosts" on the server
"squeezel.squeezel.com" must contain all the computers that will
get updated. This is "cfrun.hosts" on "squeezel.squeezel.com"
closet.squeezel.com tape.squeezel.com
Once I'm done, from "tape.squeezel.com" I can run the following test:
$ cfrun squeezel.squeezel.com -v
TIP 166:
cfengine - a quick example. This example will be
run as root. You create the file "cfagent.conf" in
"/var/cfengine/inputs/". The example below will checksum all the
files in /home/chirico/deleteme/tripwire, it will also comment
out the line "finger" in any file located in /tmp/testdir/stuff,
also appending the command in this file " Edit change with cfengine".
# /var/cfengine/inputs/cfagent.conf # # You run this with the
following: # cfagent -vK
control:
actionsequence = ( files tidy editfiles )
ChecksumDatabase = ( /var/cfengine/cache.db ) # Below,
true to update md5 ChecksumUpdates = ( true )
files:
/home/chirico/deleteme/tripwire checksum=md5 recurse=inf
/home/chirico/deleteme/tripwire/moredata checksum=md5
recurse=inf #/home/chirico/deleteme/tripwire/compress
recurse=inf include=*.txt acti on=compress
# If the database isn't secure, nothing is secure...
/var/cfengine/cache.db mode=600 owner=root action=fixall
tidy:
/home/chirico/deleteme/tripwire pattern=*~ recurse=inf
age=0 # You must put an age. 0 runs now.
editfiles:
{ /tmp/testdir/stuff
HashCommentLinesContaining "finger" AppendIfNoSuchLine
"# Edit Change with cfengine "
}
A few further notes on the above. The command "actionsequence =
( files tidy editfiles) tells the order of what to execute. The
heading "tidy:" deletes files, and of course, "editfiles" does the
editing of files.
To run the example, execute the following command. The "-K" causes
the lock file to be ignored.
$ cfagent -vK
TIP 167:
Implementing Disk Quotas - a quick example that can easily be
done on a live system for testing. There is no need to reboot,
since you'll be creating a virtual filesystem.
Do the following as root. First create a mount point.
# mkdir -p /quota
Next, create 20M file. Since I have many of these files, I created
a special directory "/usr/disk-img"
# mkdir -p /usr/disk-img # dd if=/dev/zero
of=/usr/disk-img/disk-quota.ext3 count=40960
The dd command above create a 20 MB file because, by default, dd uses
a block size of 512 bytes. That makes the size: 40960*512=20971520.
Next, format this as an ext3 filesystem
# /sbin/mkfs -t ext3 -q /usr/disk-img/disk-quota.ext3 -F
Add the following line to "/etc/fstab"
/usr/disk-img/disk-quota.ext3 /quota ext3
rw,loop,usrquota,grpquota 0 0
Now, mount this filesystem
# mount /quota
Take a look at it:
# ls -l /quota lost+found
Now, run "quotacheck"
# quotacheck -vug /quota
You'll get errors the first time this is run, because you have no
quota files. But, run it a second time and you'll see something
similiar to the following:
# quotacheck -vug /quota quotacheck: Scanning /dev/loop2
[/quota] done quotacheck: Checked 3 directories and 4 files
Now take a look at the files:
# ls -l /quota total 26 -rw------- 1 root root 6144 Jun
14 12:23 aquota.group -rw------- 1 root root 6144 Jun
14 12:23 aquota.user drwx------ 2 root root 12288 Jun 14
12:18 lost+found
Next use "edquota" to grant the user "chirico" a certain quota
# edquota -f /quota chirico
This will bring up a menu, and here I have edited so that user
"chirico" has a soft limit of 120*512=61K, and a soft limit of 2
inodes and a hard limit of 5.
Disk quotas for user chirico (uid 500): Filesystem
blocks soft hard inodes soft hard
/dev/loop2 2 120 150
1 2 3
Next, turn quotas on with the following command:
$ quotaon /quota
If you need to turn off quotas, the command is "quotaoff -a" for all
filesystems. You'll run into errors if you try to run quotacheck,
say "quotacheck -avug" because this tries to unmount and mount the
filesystem. You need to turn off quotas first "quotaoff /quota". Note
you only need to run quotacheck once, or when doing maintenance
after a system crash.
To get a report on the quote, runn "repquota" as follows:
$ repquota /quota
*** Report for user quotas on device /dev/loop0 Block grace
time: 7days; Inode grace time: 7days
Block limits File
limits
User used soft
hard grace used soft hard grace
----------------------------------------------------------------------
root -- 1189 0 0 2 0
0 chirico -+ 93 0 0 4 2
5 6days
Note above that user "chirico" has used 4 on the file limits. This
user has a hard limit of 5. So when this user tries to create 2
more files (bring this over the limit of 5) then he will get the
following error as demonstrated below.
[chirico@squeezel chirico]$ touch one [chirico@squeezel
chirico]$ touch two loop0: write failed, user file limit
reached. touch: cannot touch `two': Disk quota exceeded
Now, if repquota (run by root) is executed it shows the following:
$ repquota /quota *** Report for user quotas on device
/dev/loop0 Block grace time: 7days; Inode grace time: 7days
Block limits File limits
User used soft
hard grace used soft hard grace
----------------------------------------------------------------------
root -- 1189 0 0 2 0
0 chirico -+ 94 0 0 5 2
5 6days
Note the "+" sign above. User "chirico" is above the File soft
limits, and in this case above the hard limits.
To warn user by sending email to them, run "warnquota", but you
need check that "/etc/warnquota.conf" is setup correctly. For the
example above, this file should look as follows:
$ cat /etc/quotatab # # This is sample quotatab
(/etc/quotatab) # Here you can specify description of
each device for user # # Comments begin with hash in the
beginning of the line
# Example of description /dev/loop0: This is loopback device
Just run the following as root:
$ warnquota
By the way, if you want to change the grace period, it can only
be done on a filesystem basis. Not per user.
$ edquota -t
Users can run "quota" to see their usage as follows:
[chirico@squeezel ~]$ quota Disk quotas for user chirico
(uid 500):
Filesystem blocks quota limit grace files
quota limit grace /dev/loop0 94 0 0
5 10 50
As you can see from above, I changed my inode limit to 50.
What about running this on the whole filesystem? Yes, below is an
example where I'm running this on FC3, on the root of the filesystem
"/". This assumes that you have installed the quota package. Try
doing "rpm -q quota" to see if this package is installed.
Step 1:
Check to make sure the quota software is installed. You can
either do a "whereis quota", or check for the rpm package.
$ whereis quota whereis quota quota: /usr/bin/quota
/usr/share/man/man1/quota.1.gz
Checking for the rpm package.
$ rpm -q quota quota-3.12-5
Step 2:
Edit /etc/fstab and add usrquota and grpquota options for
"/dev/VolGroup00/LogVol00", which is shown on the first
line below:
/dev/VolGroup00/LogVol00 / ext3
defaults,usrquota,grpquota 1 1 LABEL=/boot
/boot ext3 defaults 1 2 none
/dev/pts devpts gid=5,mode=620 0 0 none
/dev/shm tmpfs defaults 0 0 none
/proc proc defaults 0 0 none
/sys sysfs defaults 0 0
/dev/VolGroup00/LogVol01 swap swap
defaults 0 0
Step 3:
Remount the filesystem as follows:
$ mount -o remount /
Step 4:
Run quotacheck with the "-m" option. Like the above statement,
this will have to be run with root priviliges. This creates
the quota database files, and it can take a long time if it
is a large full filesystem.
$ quotacheck -cugm /
Step 5:
This step is optional, but it's good to know if you need to
recalculate quotas because of a system crash. It's demonstrated
here, because at this point quota's have not been turned on.
Again, note the "m" option below.
$ quotacheck -avumg
Step 6:
Set limits for specific users or groups using the "edquota"
command. Shown below is the command to setup quotas for user
"chirico". Shown below this user has used 161560 blocks, he
has a soft limit of 1161560 and a hard limit of 900000. He
has used 3085 inodes and has a soft limit of 10000 and a hard
limit of 12000.
$ edquota -f / chirico
Disk quotas for user chirico (uid 500):
Filesystem blocks soft hard
inodes soft hard /dev/mapper/VolGroup00-LogVol00
161560 1161560 900000 3085 10000 12000
You can put quotas on groups as well. The following is done as
root. See (TIP 186 and TIP 6) for creating groups and adding
users to groups.
$ edquota -g share
If you create a sharable directory for anyone in the group
"share" (TIP 6), quota restrictions against group "share" will
only apply to files added in the "/home/share" directory. When
user "chirico" creates files in "/home/share" they also go
against this user quota as well. However, when files are
created in his home directory they do not go against the
"share" group.
Note - if you get errors when trying to run "edquota -g share",
turn quotas off "quotaoff /" and
run "quotacheck -avugm". Then, turn the quotas back on
"quotaon /".
You can see the status of the group quota with the following
command:
$ quota -g share
Step 7:
Turn on quotas with the "qutoaon" command. This command needs
to be done with root privileges.
$ quotaon /
Step 8:
Check "/etc/quotatab" file for the correct entries. Note that
when you do the "mount" command the filesystem returned needs
to match what is in the "quotatab" file. I have noticed that
this is not the case by default.
$ mount /dev/mapper/VolGroup00-LogVol00 on / type ext3
(rw,usrquota,grpquota)
So the "/etc/quotatab" must contain the following line.
/dev/mapper/VolGroup00-LogVol00: This is the Volume group
Step 9:
Run "warnquota" as a check that the "/etc/quotatab" files is
setup correctly.
$ warnquota
Step 10:
Setup a daily cron job for running "warnquota". The following
should be placed in "/etc/cron.daily"
#!/bin/sh # Place this file in /etc/cron.daily # with rights
0755 /usr/sbin/warnquota EXITVALUE=$? if [ $EXITVALUE !=
0 ]; then
/usr/bin/logger -t warnquota "ALERT exited abnormally
with [$EXITVALUE]"
fi exit 0
References:
http://www.redhat.com/docs/manuals/enterprise/RHEL-4-Manual/sysadmin-guide/ch-disk-quotas.html
(TIP 6, TIP 186, and TIP 205)
TIP 168:
rdist - remote file distribution client program. You can use this
program in combination with ssh. This program does more than just
copy files. Once a file has been copied, you can dictate other
actions to be performed. Or you can hold off copying all together
if the destination is running low on inodes, or disk space.
For the purpose of this example, all commands will been run on
"squeezel.squeezel.com", and the computers that will be updated are
"tape.squeezel.com" and "closet.squeezel.com". Obviously, you would
substitute your computer names.
It helps to setup ssh keys on each computer first. Reference
[http://souptonuts.sourceforge.net/sshtips.htm] and (TIP 12).
Step 1: Create the Configuration file myDistfile
Below is my sample "myDistfile". This file will access
hosts "tape.squeezel.com" using username chirico and
"closet.squeezel.com" with the username running this command, and
copy the files "/home/chirico/file1" and "/home/chirico/file2"
to the these two servers creating the directory ~/tmpdir if
it doesn't exist. Once these files are updated, a mail check
("sendmail -bv") will be performed, and mail will be sent to
"chirico@squeezel". This happens twice, once for each file.
Note, the line "/home/chirico/file2 -> tape.squeezel.com" which
moves the file "file2" to tape.squeezel.com renaming the file
to "tapedest" in the directory "/home/chirico". Once this file
is copied, the rights are modified to "chmod +r". Likewise,
"/home/chirico/file2 -> closet.squeezel.com" copies the file file2,
which is renamed as closetdest.
# Contents of myDistfile HOSTS = (
chirico@tape.squeezel.com closet.squeezel.com )
FILES = ( /home/chirico/file1 /home/chirico/file2 )
${FILES} -> ${HOSTS}
# Directory tmpdir will be created if it doesn't
exist install tmpdir ; special /home/chirico/file1
"/usr/sbin/sendmail -bv mchirico@gmail.com"; notify
chirico@squeezel;
/home/chirico/file2 -> tape.squeezel.com
install /home/chirico/tapedest;
special /home/chirico/tapedest "chmod +r
/home/chirico/tapedest";
/home/chirico/file2 -> closet.squeezel.com
install /home/chirico/closetdest;
Step 2: Command from squeezel.squeezel.com to run myDistfile above
Below is the command that will execute the contents in
"myDistfile". This command is run from the computer
"squeezel.squeezel.com". All output will go in the file
"cmd1rdist.log".
$ rdist -P /usr/local/bin/ssh -f ./myDistfile -l
file=./cmd1rdist.log=all
Obviously you want a secure copy (using scp), so the -P option
uses ssh as your secure transport mechanism.
TIP 169:
Restricting root logins (/etc/securetty). ctl-alt-F4 will give you
a prompt for tty3. Note that it is one number less. Take a look at
the contents of "/etc/securetty". To prevent root from logging in on
this device, take out tty3 from this listing. Note, you can always
login as another user, then, su to root. Below is an example of
the default "/etc/securetty" that allows root to login to everything.
[root@squeezel ~]# cat /etc/securetty console vc/1 vc/2 vc/3
vc/4 vc/5 vc/6 vc/7 vc/8 vc/9 vc/10 vc/11 tty1 tty2 tty3 tty4
tty5 tty6 tty7 tty8 tty9 tty10 tty11
TIP 170:
Perl map function. Try the following to get a quick take on this
function, which increments each value in the array a;
#!/usr/bin/perl @a = (1,2,3); map {$_++} @a; map { print "$_\n"
} @a;
or
#!/usr/bin/perl @a = (1,2,3); map { print "$_\n"} map {++$_} @a;
And you can easily make modifications, like reversing the order
#!/usr/bin/perl @a = (1,2,3); map { print "$_\n"} reverse map
{++$_} @a;
Plus there is a grep() function that works on each element as well
#!/usr/bin/perl @a = (1,2,3); map { print "$_\n"} reverse grep{
$_ > 3} map {++$_} @a;
To get only odd numbers in reverse order:
#!/usr/bin/perl @a = (1,2,3); map { print "$_\n"} reverse grep{
!($_ % 2)} map {++$_} @a;
Reference:
http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-road4.html
TIP 171:
Perl - subroutine call and shifting through variables. A simple
and useful technique.
#!/usr/bin/perl sub test {
local $mval; while( $mval = shift ) {
print " $mval\n";
}
}
test("one","two","three");
TIP 172:
Tcp wrappers - First "/etc/hosts.allow" is check, and if there is an
entry in this file, no more checking it done. If are no matches in
"/etc/hosts.allow", the "/etc/hosts.deny" file is checked and if
a match is found, that service is blocked for that host.
Example "/etc/hosts.deny" file:
sshd: 192.168.1.171
The above file blocks access to computer 192.168.1.171. It's also
possible to run commands when someone from this computer tries to
ssh in. This example sends mail.
sshd: 192.168.1.171: spawn (echo -e "%d %h %H %u"| /bin/mail -s
'hosts.deny entry' root)
Of course, you can also run commands in the "/etc/hosts.allow"
if you wanted mail sent for a successful login.
TIP 173:
pgrep, pkill - look up or signal process based on name and other
attributes.
To quick find all instances of ssh running, for user root, execute
the following command:
$ pgrep -u root -l ssh
To kill a process, or send a signal use the "pkill" option. For
example, to make syslog reread its configuration file:
$ pkill -HUP syslogd
Another command command is "pidof" that can tell you how many
processes are running. This can be useful for detecting DOS attacks.
$ pidof sshd 4783 4781 30008 30006 29888 29886 2246
Above there are 7 sshd's running. Reference
"Tcpdump, Raw Socket and Libpap Tutorial" at
[http://souptonuts.sourceforge.net/tcpdump_tutorial.html].
TIP 174:
Password Cracking - tools to check your users passwords:
John The Ripper
http://www.openwall.com/john/
Crack
http://www.crypticide.com/users/alecm/
Slurpie
http://www.ussrback.com/distributed.htm
TIP 175:
Password Aging - setting the number of days a password is valid.
$ chage -M 90
TIP 176:
Kernel Performance Tuning - /Documentation/sysctl/vm.txt documents
kernel settings to improve performance. Below are some examples.
overcommit_memory: 0 -- default estimates the amount of memory
for malloc
1 -- kernel pretends there is always enough
memory until it runs out 3 -- never overcommit
$ cat /proc/sys/vm/overcommit_memory 0
page-cluster:
The Linux VM subsystem avoids excessive disk seeks by reading
multiple pages on a page fault. The number of pages it reads
is dependent on the amount of memory in your machine.
The number of pages the kernel reads in at once is equal to
2 ^ page-cluster. Values above 2 ^ 5 don't make much sense
for swap because we only cluster swap data in 32-page groups.
$ cat /proc/sys/vm/page-cluster 3
min_free_kbytes:
This is used to force the Linux VM to keep a minimum number
of kilobytes free. The VM uses this number to compute
a pages_min value for each lowmem zone in the system.
Each lowmem zone gets a number of reserved free pages based
proportionally on its size.
$ cat /proc/sys/vm/min_free_kbytes 3831
max_map_count:
This file contains the maximum number of memory map areas a
process may have. Memory map areas are used as a side-effect
of calling malloc, directly by mmap and mprotect, and also
when loading shared libraries.
While most applications need less than a thousand maps,
certain programs, particularly malloc debuggers, may consume
lots of them, e.g., up to one or two maps per allocation.
The default value is 65536.
$ cat /proc/sys/vm/max_map_count 65536
Also see http://people.redhat.com/alikins/system_tuning.html
TIP 177:
IO Scheduler - /Documentation/block/as-iosched.txt documents kernel
settings for disk performance.
If you're not sure what partitions you have "$ cat
/proc/partitions". This example assumes hda, and you can see some
of the kernel settings:
$ ls /sys/block/hda/queue/iosched back_seek_max
back_seek_penalty clear_elapsed fifo_batch_expire
fifo_expire_async
fifo_expire_sync find_best_crq key_type quantum queued
References: http://lwn.net/Articles/102505/
http://bhhdoa.org.au/pipermail/ck/2004-September/000961.html
TIP 178:
iozone -- getting data on disk performance
(http://www.iozone.org/). This is a very comprehensive package.
$ wget http://www.iozone.org/src/current/iozone3_242.tar $ tar
-xf iozone3_242.tar $ cd iozone3_242/src/current $ make linux
At this point you should read the documentation. There is no "make
install". You copy it to each filesystem you want to run this
program on. Below are some quick start commands.
Good comprehensive test.
$ iozone -a
I prefer this for small filesystems. It limits the record size
to 10000 and does the output in operations per second (higher
numbers mean faster drive).
$ ./iozone -a -s 10000 -O
TIP 179:
history - bash command to get a history of all commands typed. But,
here is a way that you can get date and time listed as well.
$ HISTTIMEFORMAT="%y/%m/%d %T "
Defining the environment variable above give you the date/time info
when you execute history:
$ history
...
175 05/06/30 12:51:46 grep '141.162.' mout > mout2
176 05/06/30 12:51:48 e mout2 177 05/06/30 12:56:59 ls
178 05/06/30 12:57:02 ls 179 05/06/30 12:57:39 ls 180
05/06/30 12:57:49 ls -l 181 05/06/30 13:01:10 history
182 05/06/30 13:01:20 HISTTIMEFORMAT="%y/%m/%d %T "
183 05/06/30 13:01:23 history
...
TIP 180:
.config - Fedora Core getting the .config to rebuild the kernel. You
can find this file, the ".config" file at the following location:
$ ls "/lib/modules/$(uname -r)/build/.config"
Or, to see the contents
$ cat "/lib/modules/$(uname -r)/build/.config"
This can be important, if you're planning to build your own kernel.
TIP 181:
Listing control key settings.
$ stty -a speed 38400 baud; rows 0; columns 0; line = 0; intr
= ^C; quit = ^\; erase =
eol =
^Z; rprnt = ^R; werase = ^W; lnext = ^V; flush = ^O; min =
1; time = 0; -parenb -parodd cs8 -hupcl -cstopb cread -clocal
-crtscts -ignbrk -brkint -ignpar -parmrk -inpck -istrip -inlcr
-igncr icrnl ixon -ixoff -iuclc -ixany -imaxbel opost -olcuc
-ocrnl -onlcr -onocr -onlret -ofill -ofdel nl0 cr0 tab0 bs0
vt0 ff0 isig icanon iexten -echo echoe echok -echonl -noflsh
-xcase -tostop -echoprt echoctl echoke
TIP 182:
iptables DNAT and SNAT. You have a webserver on 192.168.1.71. When
people query this webserver, you want them to goto 192.168.1.81,
with no indication that they are going to another web server. In
fact, they always make their web hits to 192.168.1.71.
The following is the iptables commands:
$ echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_forward $ iptables -t nat
-A PREROUTING -d 192.168.1.71 -p tcp --dport 80 -j DNAT --to
192.168.1.81 $ iptables -t nat -A POSTROUTING -d 192.168.1.81
-s 192.168.1.0/24 -p tcp --dport 80 -j SNAT --to 192.168.1.71
Change 192.168.1.0/24 to whatever source you expect the web browser
to come in on. Below is the tcpdump showing all traffic is relayed
via 192.168.1.71
[root@closet iptables]# tcpdump -nN port 80
17:34:58.790398 IP 192.168.1.102.1158 > 192.168.1.71.80: S
3620106373:3620106373(0) win 16384
17:34:58.790465 IP 192.168.1.71.1158 > 192.168.1.81.80: S
3620106373:3620106373(0) win 16384
17:34:58.790703 IP 192.168.1.81.80 > 192.168.1.71.1158:
S 1973665156:1973665156(0) ack 3620106374 win 5840
192.168.1.102.1158: S 1973665156:1973665156(0) ack 3620106374
win 5840
192.168.1.102.1158 > 192.168.1.71.80: . ack 1 win 17520
17:34:58.790965 IP 192.168.1.71.1158 > 192.168.1.81.80:
. ack 1 win 17520 17:34:58.791451 IP 192.168.1.102.1158 >
192.168.1.71.80: P 1:327(326) ack 1 win 17520 17:34:58.791472
IP 192.168.1.71.1158 > 192.168.1.81.80: P 1:327(326) ack 1 win
17520 17:34:58.791973 IP 192.168.1.81.80 > 192.168.1.71.1158:
. ack 327 win 6432
Above the web client is on "192.168.1.102". You can see that
the 1st server "192.168.1.71" then goes out to the 2nd server
"192.168.1.81" on the second line. The third line shows the 2nd
server "192.168.1.81" responding to the 1st server, and the forth
line passes this data back to the web client "192.168.1.102".
Note: You can save your current iptables setting with the following
command:
$ iptables-save > iptables_store
The big advantage is that you can store the counters as well.
$ iptables-save -c > iptables_store_w_cnts
To restore the file, use the following:
$ iptables-restore -c < iptables_store_w_cnts
TIP 183:
mailstats - display mail statistics. This file reads data from
"/var/log/mail/statistics"
[root@closet ~]# mailstats Statistics from Sat Jun 25 15:59:52
2005
M msgsfr bytes_from msgsto bytes_to msgsrej msgsdis
msgsqur Mailer 4 1 2K 0 0K
0 0 0 esmtp 9 0 0K 1
2K 0 0 0 local
=====================================================================
T 1 2K 1 2K 0 0
0 C 1 0 0
TIP 184:
Profiling C Applications - Assume you have the following program
p1.c:
/* Program p1.c */ #include
t1(int i) {
printf("t1:%d\n", i);
}
t2(int j) {
printf("t2:%d\n", j);
}
int main(void) {
int i, j;
for (i = 0; i < 5; ++i) {
t1(i); for (j = 0; j < 2; ++j) {
t2(j);
}
}
}
Compile the program as follows:
$ gcc -pg -g -o p1 p1.c $ ./p1 t1:0 t2:0 t2:1 t1:1 t2:0 t2:1
t1:2 t2:0 t2:1 t1:3 t2:0 t2:1 t1:4 t2:0 t2:1
Next, to get the profile graph.
$ gprof -p -b p1 Flat profile:
Each sample counts as 0.01 seconds.
no time accumulated
% cumulative self self total
time seconds seconds calls Ts/call Ts/call name
0.00 0.00 0.00 10 0.00 0.00 t2 0.00
0.00 0.00 5 0.00 0.00 t1
Above note the 10 calls to t2 and 5 calls to t1.
TIP 185:
CDPATH - this is a bash variable like PATH that defines a search path
for the cd command.
Suppose you have the following directory structure:
/home/chirico/stuff
|-- dirA `-- dirB
Assume you define CDPATH as follows:
CDPATH=/home/chirico/stuff
Now, no matter what directory you are in if you use the cd command
below you will automatically move to "/home/chirico/stuff/dirA".
$ cd dirA
Note you could be in "/etc" and will move directly to
"/home/chirico/stuff/dirA". This command has the same format as
PATH - multiple entries are separated by a colon. If the current
directory contain a sub-directory dirA, then, it gets priority.
The following is part of my .bash_profile
CDPATH=/work/cpearls/src/posted_on_sf/:/work/souptonuts/documentation/:/home/chirico/deleteme/
export PATH CVS_RSH EDITOR JAVA_HOME CDPATH
TIP 186:
Groups - add groups and users to groups. The following shows how
to create the group "share"
and add the user "chirico" to this group. The following
should be done as root, and assumes the account "chirico"
already exits.
$ groupadd share $ usermod -G share chirico
Note the change made to "/etc/group" below:
$ cat /etc/group|grep 'share' share:x:616:chirico
If the user chirico is currently logged in, he should run the
following command to immediately have group "share" rights. Or,
the next time he logs in he will have access to this group.
$ newgrp share
Reference the following (TIP 6, TIP 167).
TIP 187:
oprofile - steps for running oprofile on Fedora.
Step 1:
Find out what version of the kernel you are running.
$ uname -a Linux closet.squeezel.com 2.6.12-1.1398_FC4 #1
Fri Jul 15 00:52:32 EDT 2005 i686 i686 i386 GNU/Linux
Step 2:
Download the source in a chosen directory. Above, I'm running
2.6.12-1, but I'm going to go for 2.6.12.3, since it's a little
later. You want the signed file as well.
$ wget
http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v2.6/linux-2.6.12.3.tar.gz
$ wget
http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/kernel/v2.6/linux-2.6.12.3.tar.gz.sign
Now, check the signature.
$ gpg --verify linux-2.6.12.3.tar.gz.sign linux-2.6.12.3.tar.gz
Step 3:
Unpack the file.
$ tar -xzf linux-2.6.12.3.tar.gz $ cd cd linux-2.6.12.3
Step 4:
Copy the ".config" used to compile your previous kernel. You
should find it in the following direcotry "/lib/modules/$(uname
-r)/build/.config".
Copy it to the linux-2.6.12.3 directory.
$ cp "/lib/modules/$(uname -r)/build/.config" .
Step 5:
Run make as follows. It will ask for a few questions on "make
oldconfig". The make installs below will have to be done with
root privileges.
$ make oldconfig $ make bzImage $ make modules $ make
modules_install $ make install
Step 6:
Edit the "/boot/grub/grub.conf" and set default = 0 as shown
below in this file.
default=0 timeout=5 splashimage=(hd0,2)/grub/splash.xpm.gz
hiddenmenu title Fedora Core (2.6.12.3)
root (hd0,2) kernel /vmlinuz-2.6.12.3 ro
root=/dev/VolGroup00/LogVol00 rhgb quiet initrd
/initrd-2.6.12.3.img
title Fedora Core (2.6.12-1.1398_FC4)
root (hd0,2) kernel /vmlinuz-2.6.12-1.1398_FC4 ro
root=/dev/VolGroup00/LogVol00 rhgb quiet initrd
/initrd-2.6.12-1.1398_FC4.img
title Fedora Core (2.6.11-1.1369_FC4)
root (hd0,2) kernel /vmlinuz-2.6.11-1.1369_FC4 ro
root=/dev/VolGroup00/LogVol00 rhgb quiet initrd
/initrd-2.6.11-1.1369_FC4.img
title Other
rootnoverify (hd0,1) chainloader +1
Step 7:
Shutdown with the restart option.
$ shutdown -r now
Step 8:
Run opcontrol. The commands below are done as root. My kernel was
compiled in the following directory "/home/kernel/linux-2.6.12.3/",
so I'll run opcontrol as follows:
$ opcontrol --vmlinux=/home/kernel/linux-2.6.12.3/vmlinux
Now start.
$ opcontrol --start Using 2.6+ OProfile kernel
interface. Reading module info. Using log file
/var/lib/oprofile/oprofiled.log Daemon started. Profiler
running.
Shutdown opcontrol.
$ opcontrol --shutdown
Run report.
$ opreport
CPU: CPU with timer interrupt, speed 0 MHz (estimated)
Profiling through timer interrupt
TIMER:0|
samples| %|
------------------
156088 99.8746 vmlinux
60 0.0384 libc-2.3.5.so 30 0.0192 oprofiled 23 0.0147
libcrypto.so.0.9.7f 13 0.0083 bash 12 0.0077 screen
10 0.0064 sshd
9 0.0058 ssh 6 0.0038 ip_tables 6 0.0038
libncurses.so.5.4 5 0.0032 b44 5 0.0032 ext3 5
0.0032 ld-2.3.5.so 4 0.0026 ip_conntrack 4 0.0026
jbd 2 0.0013 grep 1 6.4e-04 libdns.so.20.0.2 1
6.4e-04 libisc.so.9.1.5
Reference the following for more documentation:
http://oprofile.sourceforge.net/doc/
TIP 188:
cyrus-imapd with Postfix using sasldb for authentication. For this
example the server is tape.squeezel.com and the user is chirico.
Step 1:
$ yum install cyrus-imapd $ yum install
cyrus-imapd-utils
You need "cyrus-imapd-utils" for cyradm.
Step 2:
Edit /etc/imapd.conf
configdirectory: /var/lib/imap partition-default:
/var/spool/imap admins: cyrus sievedir: /var/lib/imap/sieve
sendmail: /usr/sbin/sendmail hashimapspool: true #
Chirico Commented the below line # sasl_pwcheck_method:
saslauthd # Because using sasldb sasl_pwcheck_method:
auxprop sasl_auxprop_plugin: sasldb # Chirico
end change sasl_mech_list: PLAIN tls_cert_file:
/usr/share/ssl/certs/cyrus-imapd.pem tls_key_file:
/usr/share/ssl/certs/cyrus-imapd.pem tls_ca_file:
/usr/share/ssl/certs/ca-bundle.crt
Step 3:
Create a user and password:
$ saslpasswd2 -c -u `postconf -h myhostname` cyrus $
saslpasswd2 -c -u `postconf -h myhostname` chirico $
saslpasswd2 -c -u `postconf -h myhostname` allmail
This will automatically create the file /etc/sasldb2. But look
at the default rights, assuming you ran saslpasswd2 as root:
$ ls -l /etc/sasldb2 -rw-r----- 1 root root 12288 Jul
31 09:50 /etc/sasldb2
We need to correct this in step 4.
Step 4:
$ chown root.mail /etc/sasldb2 $ ls -l /etc/sasldb2
-rw-r----- 1 root mail 12288 Jul 31 09:50 /etc/sasldb2
Step 5:
Update "/etc/postfix/main.cf". Note in /etc/imapd.conf the
configdirectory points to /var/lib/imap, and if I look at
this directory I see the socket directory. However, after
staring /etc/init.d/cyrus-imapd there will be a socket file
"/var/lib/imap/socket/lmtp". (See step 6).
mailbox_transport = lmtp:unix:/var/lib/imap/socket/lmtp
mailbox_transport = cyrus
Restart postfix.
/etc/init.d/postfix restart
Step 6:
Start cyrus-imapd and look for the socket file.
$ /etc/init.d/cyrus-imapd restart Shutting down
cyrus-imapd: [ OK ]
Starting cyrus-imapd: preparing databases... done.
[ OK ]
Now you should see the lmtp file:
$ ls -l /var/lib/imap/socket/lmtp srwxrwxrwx 1 root
root 0 Jul 31 10:04 /var/lib/imap/socket/lmtp
Step 7:
Add users. Note, you may have to go back to step 3 to add
them to /etc/sasldb2 as well.
$ su - cyrus $ cyradm tape.squeezel.com
tape.squeezel.com> cm user.chirico tape.squeezel.com>
quit
Now got back as root, and check that everything was created
correctly.
$ ls /var/spool/imap/c/user/ total 8 drwx------
2 cyrus mail 4096 Jul 31 10:21 chirico
Step 8:
Run a mail test. We'll do this as root to the chirico
account.
$ mail -s 'First test' chirico first test .
Now, still as root check the maillog. Normally everything
should work.
$ tail /var/log/maillog
However, I got the following error below.
Jul 31 10:29:03 tape
postfix/cleanup[30124]: AE7CB1B34A4:
message-id=<20050731142903.AE7CB1B34A4@tape.squeezel.com>
Jul 31 10:29:03 tape postfix/qmgr[30120]:
AE7CB1B34A4: from=
size=315, nrcpt=1 (queue active) Jul 31 10:29:03
tape pipe[30128]: fatal: pipe_comand: execvp
/cyrus/bin/deliver: No such file or directory
If you get a similiar error, you may need to adjust the
settting in /etc/postfix/master.cf
# This is the problem in /etc/postfix/master.cf cyrus
unix - n n - - pipe
user=cyrus argv=/cyrus/bin/deliver -e -r ${sender}
-m ${extension} ${user}
My deliver file is the following
$ ls -l /usr/lib/cyrus-imapd/deliver -rwxr-xr-x 1 root
root 846228 Apr 4 18:59 /usr/lib/cyrus-imapd/deliver
So I need to change my /etc/postfix/master.cf as follows:
# Fix because by deliver file is under
/usr/lib/cyrus-imapd/deliver cyrus unix - n
n - - pipe
user=cyrus argv=/usr/lib/cyrus-imapd/deliver -e -r
${sender} -m ${extension} ${user}
If changes were needed, like I had to do, restart postfix
$ /etc/init.d/postfix restart
Now, if everything works, you should start to see numbers
in the spool directory like "1." and "2.".
$ ls -l /var/spool/imap/c/user/chirico/ total 40
-rw------- 1 cyrus mail 545 Jul 31 10:44 1. -rw-------
1 cyrus mail 547 Jul 31 10:45 2. -rw------- 1 cyrus
mail 1276 Jul 31 10:45 cyrus.cache -rw------- 1 cyrus
mail 153 Jul 31 10:21 cyrus.header -rw------- 1 cyrus
mail 196 Jul 31 10:45 cyrus.index
Step 9:
Local firewall.
# imap
iptables -A INPUT -p udp -s 192.168.1.0/24 --dport 143
-j ACCEPT iptables -A INPUT -p tcp -s 192.168.1.0/24
--dport 143 -j ACCEPT
Step 10:
Configure cyrus-imapd to start for run-level 3 and 5.
# chkconfig --level 35 cyrus-imapd on
HINTS -
Something to watch out for:
Something to watch out for: If a user creates a .forward
file in their shell account with the following entry,
then, mail will not get mail relayed to cyrus.
"|exec /usr/bin/procmail"
The /etc/maillog will show something like this:
to=
relay=local, delay=0,
status=sent (delivered to command: exec
/usr/bin/procmail)
Remove the ".forward" file from their home directory and
you'll get the following:
to=
delay=0,
status=sent (squeezel.squeezel.com)
mutt with IMAP? (See TIP 190)
TIP 189:
expand - convert tabs to spaces in a file.
$ expand How_to_Linux_and_Open_Source.txt > notabs
TIP 190:
mutt with imap - assume you have setup imap (see tip 188). Now how
do you configure
your ".muttrc" file to automatically connect,
securely to the IMAP server?
Below is an example of my ".muttrc" file. For this example, assume
my password is "S0m3paSSw0r9".
$ cat .muttrc set spoolfile =
"imaps://chirico:S0m3paSSw0r9@squeezel.squeezel.com/
set imap_force_ssl=yes set
certificate_file=~/.mutt/certificates/72d31154.0
Now, you want to copy the certificate as a "file.pem" and run
"c_rehash" to convert this file to a number. See the article. See
the following article on how to do this under the fetchmail section.
http://souptonuts.sourceforge.net/postfix_tutorial.html
This is a quick summary of creating this key.
$ openssl s_client -connect squeezel.squeezel.com:995
-showcerts > file.pem $ c_rehash ~/.mutt/certificates
TIP 191:
Apache - CGI scripts. There are two ways to enable CGI scripts. The
second method is the
prefered method.
First way, the easy way. Look for the "http.conf"
file. On Fedora Core, this file can be found under
"/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf". Edit this file as follows to make
"http://squeezel.squeezel.com/chirico-cgi/" execute scripts.
ScriptAlias /chirico-cgi/ "/home/chirico/cgi-bin/"
Second way, the better way. Instead of doing the above,
make the following change in "/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf".
Options +ExecCGI SetHandler chirico-cgi
Running a test script. Now copy the following test script into
the directory "/home/chirico/cgi-bin" and change the rights to
execute for the user running this.
#!/bin/sh # Save as test.cgi # chown apache.apache
test.cgi # chmod 700 test.cgi echo "Content-Type:
text/html" echo echo "Hello world from user
`whoami`! "
TIP 192:
Bash - using getopts for your bash scripts.
#!/bin/bash while getopts "ab:cd:" Option # b and d
take arguments # do
case $Option in
a) echo -e "a = $OPTIND";; b) echo -e "b = $OPTIND
$OPTARG";; c) echo -e "c = $OPTIND";; d) echo -e
"d = $OPTIND $OPTARG";;
esac
done shift $(($OPTIND - 1))
TIP 193:
Sieve - creating sieve recipes with "sieveshell"
The following sieve script put all jefferson.edu mail into the
folder jefferson. This assumes that I have already created the IMP
directory, or mail box (INBOX.jefferson), which can be done in mutt
with the "C" command. Below is an example of finding "jefferson.edu"
anywhere in the header.
# This is a file named jefferson.siv require ["fileinto"];
if header :contains "Received" "from jefferson.edu" {
fileinto "INBOX.jefferson"; stop;
}
Now, from the command propt execute "sieveshell" with the hostname
of the imap server. My server is squeezel.squeezel.com, so I would
execute the following:
$ sieveshell squeezel.squeezel.com connecting to
squeezel.squeezel.com Please enter your password:**** > put
jefferson.siv > activate jefferson.siv > list jefferson.siv <-
active script > quit
Note the put brings in the script. And you need to activiate it.
You can activate a sieve script for any user on your system if
you are root. This is an example of activating a script for user
chirico. Assume below the root prompt is "#".
# sieveshell -a chirico -u chirico squeezel.squeezel.com
You can also automate everything from a bash script. But note
after the -e the commands, and not a file with the commands,
follows within quotes. This is the script I use for my home system.
#!/bin/bash sieveshell -a chirico -u chirico -e 'deactivate
delete chirico.siv put chirico.siv activate chirico.siv list
' squeezel.squeezel.com
References:
http://wiki.fastmail.fm/index.php/SieveRecipes
http://www.cyrusoft.com/sieve/#documents
TIP 194:
emacs - editing files remotely with tramp. Tramp comes with the
latest version of emacs.
That means if you're using Fedora core 4, with emacs,
you have tramp. This is ideal for editing files on remote
computers that do not use emacs.
Edit the ".emacs" file and add the following line:
(require 'tramp) (setq tramp-default-method "scp")
Now, to edit a file on computer tape.squeezel.com (C-x,
C-f) and enter the following in Find file:
Find file:/chirico@tape.squeezel.com:test.txt
References:
http://savannah.gnu.org/projects/tramp/
TIP 195:
trusted X11 forwarding - running gnome and KDE both on one screen,
at the same
time securely. The following assumes gnome is running on
the current computer and "closet.squeezel.com" has KDE
$ ssh -Y closet.squeezel.com $ startkde
Or assume you want to run gnome on "closet.squeezel.com"
$ ssh -Y closet.squeezel.com $ gnome-session
By default Fedora Core allows ForwardX11 over ssh. Note you
want to use the -Y option above and NOT -X.
Suppose you want a remote "gnome-session" on
ctl-alt-F12. Below is an example of getting the remote
computer closet.squeezel.com, and you can still have the
above configuration.
First you must allow magic cookies for each server connection.
$ MCOOKIE=$(mcookie) $ xauth add $(hostname)/unix:1
MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 $MCOOKIE $ xauth add localhost/unix:1
MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 $MCOOKIE
Again, note that you have to add this for EACH connection. So
if you wanted 2 as well
$ MCOOKIE=$(mcookie) $ xauth add $(hostname)/unix:2
MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 $MCOOKIE $ xauth add localhost/unix:2
MIT-MAGIC-COOKIE-1 $MCOOKIE
On squeezel.squeezel.com create a new xterm. If :1 is take
below try :2. The vt12 is for switching to ctl-alt-F12.
$ xinit -- :1 vt12
Note, if you do not add the above cookies, you will get the
follow error:
Xlib: connection to ":1.0" refused by server Xlib: No
protocol specified
The screen may be hard to read. At this point ssh -Y to the
remote computer.
$ ssh -Y closet.squeezel.com $ gnome-session
Yes, you will get errors about sound and some custom drivers
is the remove computer has different hardware. After is loads,
you can switch back and forth between session with (ctl-alt-F12)
and (ctl-alt-F7)
TIP 196:
Suspend ssh session - you have just sshed into a computer "ssh -l
user example.com", and you
want to get back to the terminal prompt of the computer you
started with. Escapte, by default with ssh is "~", so enter
"~" followed by "ctl-z" to suspend.
TIP 197:
Quick way to send a text file
$ sendmail -f mike.chirico@gmail.com mchirico@comcast.net
< /etc/fstab
Or you can use mutt and send a binary file
$ mutt -s "Pictures of the Kids" -a kids.jpg
chirico@laptop.mchirico.org < text.txt
TIP 198:
size - determining the size of the text segment, data segment, and
"bss" or uninitialized data segment.
$ size /bin/sh /bin/bash
text data bss dec hex filename
586946 22444 18784 628174 995ce /bin/sh 586946
22444 18784 628174 995ce /bin/bash
Note above that "/bin/sh" and "/bin/bash" have equal text,data
and bss numbers. It's highly likely that these are the same
programs.
$ ls -l /bin/sh
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 4 Jan 14 2005 /bin/sh -> bash
Yep, it's the same program. Here's a further definition of
each segment.
Text segment: The machine instructions that the CPU
executes. This is usually
read only and sharable.
Data segment: Contains initialized variables in a
program. You also know these
as declarations and definitions.
int max = 200;
Uninitialized data segment: Think of this as a declaration
only, or data that
is only initialized by the kernel to
arithmetic 0 or null pointers before program
execution.
char s[10];
TIP 199:
Using the at command.
Below is a simple example if running the ls command at 11:42am
that will send mail -m to the user that executed it.
We'll execute job1 defined as follows and set to be executable.
$ cat ./job1 #!/bin/bash date >> /tmp/job1
The at command is listed below. For queue "-q" names you can only
specify one letter. Here we're using x. The letter determines
the priority with "a" the highest.
$ at -q x -f ./job1 -m 11:54am job 3 at 2005-10-04 11:54
Now, if you execute the atq command, you'll get the following.
$ atq 3 2005-10-04 11:54 x chirico
It's also possible to execute jobs at the command line entering
a ctl-d at the end of the input.
$ at -q x -m 12:08pm at> ls -l at> who at> date at> ^D
Or for a job to execute 1 minute from now.
$ at -q x -m `date -d '1 minute' +"%H:%M"` at> ls -l at> date
Important points: The atd daemon must be running. To check if
it's running do the following:
$ /etc/init.d/atd status
Also, if there is an /etc/at.allow file, then only users in that
file will be allowed to execute at.
If /etc/at.deny exists but is empty and there is no /etc/at.allow,
then, everyone can execute the at command.
TIP 200:
lsusb - command will display all USB buses and all devices connected.
$ lsusb Bus 005 Device 003: ID 413c:2010 Dell Computer Corp.
Bus 005 Device 002: ID 413c:1003 Dell Computer Corp. Bus 005
Device 001: ID 0000:0000 Bus 004 Device 001: ID 0000:0000 Bus 003
Device 003: ID 0fc5:1227 Delcom Engineering Bus 003 Device 002:
ID 046d:c016 Logitech, Inc. Optical Mouse Bus 003 Device 001:
ID 0000:0000 Bus 002 Device 001: ID 0000:0000 Bus 001 Device 001:
ID 0000:0000
TIP 201:
Memory fragmentation - if you suspect workload memory fragmentation
issues and you want to monitor the current state of you system,
then, consider looking at the output from /proc/buddyinfo on
recent kernels.
$ cat /proc/buddyinfo
Node 0, zone DMA 541 218 42 2 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 Node 0, zone Normal 2508 2614
52 1 5 5 0 1 1 1 0 Node 0,
zone HighMem 0 1 3 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
The following definition is taken from
./Documentation/filesystems/proc.txt in the Linux kernel source.
Each column represents the number of pages of a certain order which
are available. In this case, there are 0 chunks of 2^0*PAGE_SIZE
available in ZONE_DMA, 4 chunks of 2^1*PAGE_SIZE in ZONE_DMA,
101 chunks of 2^4*PAGE_SIZE available in ZONE_NORMAL, etc...
TIP 202:
arp - Linux ARP kernel moduel. This command implements the Address
Resolution Protocol.
This is an example of the command.
$ arp Address HWtype HWaddress Flags
Mask Iface tape.squeezel.com ether
00:50:DA:60:5B:AD C eth0
squeezel.squeezel.com ether 00:11:11:8A:BE:3F C
eth0 gw.squeezel.com ether 00:0F:66:47:15:73 C
eth0
TIP 203:
dbench - performance monitoring.
So, how does your system react when the load average is above
600. Have you even seen a computer with a load average of 600? Well,
this could be your chance.
Reference: http://freshmeat.net/projects/dbench/
The following gives a load average of 10 on my system.
$ dbench 34
If you want a higher load, just increase the number.
TIP 204:
/etc guide - a listing of common files in the /etc directory.
/etc/exports: this file is used to configure NFS.
/etc/ftpusers: the users on your system who are restricted from
FTP login.
/etc/motd: message of the day, which users see after login.
/etc/named.conf: DNS config file.
/etc/profile: common user information.
/etc/inittab: this file contains runlevel start information.
/etc/services: the services and their respective ports.
/etc/shells: this contains the names of all shells installed on
the system.
/etc/passwd: this file contains user information.
/etc/group: security group rights.
TIP 205:
logger - is a bash command utility for writing to /var/log/messages
or the
other files defined in /etc/syslog.conf.
$ logger -t TEST more of a test here
This is what shows up in /var/log/messages
Oct 28 07:15:50 squeezel TEST: more of a test here
TIP 206:
accton, lastcomm - accouting on and last command. This is
a way to monitor users on your system. As root, you would
implement this as follows:
$ accton -h
Usage: accton [-hV] [file] [--help] [--version]
The system's default process accounting file is
/var/account/pacct.
Note the default file location is /var/account/pacct so we'll
turn it on system wide with the following command.
$ accton /var/account/pacct
Now take a look at this file. It will grow. To see command that
are executed, use the lastcomm command.
$ lastcomm
The above command gives output for all users. To get the data
for user "chirico" execute the following command:
$ lastcomm --user chirico
You can also get a summary of commands with sa.
[chirico@big ~]$ sa 30 5.23re 0.00cp 10185k
11 4.83re 0.00cp 8961k ***other
8 0.13re 0.00cp 19744k nagios* 4 0.00re
0.00cp 2542k automount* 3 0.00re 0.00cp
680k sa 2 0.13re 0.00cp 17424k check_ping
2 0.13re 0.00cp 978k ping
To turn off accounting, execute accton without a filename.
$ accton
TIP 207:
CPU Temperature on a laptop. The following is the temperature
of my Dell laptop.
$ cat /proc/acpi/thermal_zone/THM/temperature temperature:
58 C
TIP 208:
script -f with mkfifo to allow another user to view what you type
in real-time.
Step 1. Create a fifo (first in first out) file that the other
user can view. For this example create the file
/tmp/scriptout
[chirico@laptop ~]$ mkfifo /tmp/scriptout
Step 2. Have the second user, voyeur user, cat this file. Output
will block
for them until you complete step 3. The other user, voyer,
is executing the command below.
[voyeur@laptop ~]$ cat /tmp/scriptout
Step 3. The original user runs the following command.
[chirico@laptop ~]$ script -f /tmp/scriptout Script
started, file is /tmp/scriptout
Now anything typed, including a vi session, will be displayed
to the voyeur user in step 2.
See TIP 46.
TIP 209:
fsck forced on next reboot. To do this, as root issue the following
commands.
$ cd / $ touch forcefsck
Now reboot the system, and when it comes up fsck will be forced
on the system.
$ shutdown -r now
TIP 210:
/dev/random and /dev/urandom differ in their random generating
properties. /dev/random
only returns bytes when enough noise has been generated from the
entropy pool. In contrast /dev/urandom will always return bytes.
Reference:
http://sourceforge.net/direct-dl/mchirico/cpearls/simple_but_common.tar.gz
(rand.c)
TIP 211:
Want to find out the speed of your NIC? (Full Duplex or Half),
then use ethtool.
[root@squeezel ~]# ethtool eth0 Settings for eth0:
Supported ports: [ MII ] Supported link modes:
10baseT/Half 10baseT/Full
100baseT/Half 100baseT/Full
1000baseT/Half
1000baseT/Full
Supports auto-negotiation: Yes Advertised link
modes: 10baseT/Half 10baseT/Full
100baseT/Half 100baseT/Full
1000baseT/Half
1000baseT/Full
Advertised auto-negotiation: Yes Speed:
100Mb/s Duplex: Full Port: Twisted Pair PHYAD:
1 Transceiver: internal Auto-negotiation: on
Supports Wake-on: g Wake-on: d Current message
level: 0x000000ff (255) Link detected: yes
Normally you do not want want auto-negotiation unless it is done on
both sides. Auto-negotiation is a protocol. It does NOT automatically
determine the configuration of the port on the other side of the
Ethernet cable and then match it. (Reference: "Network Warrier",
section 3-2 by Gary A. Donahue. 2005)
$ ethtool -s eth1 autoneg off duplex full speed 100
TIP 212:
rpm install hang? You might need to delete the lock state
information.
$ nl /etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit | grep rpm 720 rm -f
/var/lib/rpm/__db* &> /dev/null
Note the command
$ rm -f /var/lib/rpm/__db*
Because sometimes you will run "rpm -ivh somerpm" and it will just
sit there.
TIP 213:
Apache - limit access to certain directories based on IP address
in the
httpd.conf file.
You can do this completely from /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf
which are shown below for multiple IP addresses. Note that
all 3 setting are the same.
10.0.0.0/255.0.0.0 10.0.0.0/8 10
However, the following is different
10.0.0.0/24 only allows 10.0.0.1 to 10.0.0.254
Some complete settings in /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf
Order allow,deny Allow from 10.0.0.0/8 # All 10.
Allow from 192.168.0.0/16 # All 192.168 Allow from
127 # All 127.
Here's an example that only allows access to .html files and
nothing else for a particular directory.
Order allow,deny Deny from all
Order deny,allow Allow from all Satisfy Any
Don't forget to reload httpd with the following command.
$ /etc/init.d/httpd reload
TIP 214:
Open Files - determining how many files are currently open.
$ cat /proc/sys/fs/file-nr 2030 263 104851
| | \- maximum open file descriptors |
| | \- total free allocated file descriptors |
(Total allocated file descriptors since boot)
Note the maximum number can be set or changed.
$ cat /proc/sys/fs/file-max 104851
To change this
$ echo "804854" > /proc/sys/fs/file-max
Note lsof | wc -l will report higher numbers because this
includes open files that are not using file descriptors such as
directories, memory mapped files, and executable text files.
(Reference http://www.netadmintools.com/art295.html
and also see the man page for this: man 5 proc )
TIP 215:
Ctrl-Alt-Del will cause an immediate reboot, without syncing dirty
buffers by setting the value > 0 in /proc/sys/kernel/ctrl-alt-del.
$ echo 1 > /proc/sys/kernel/ctrl-alt-del
(Reference: man 5 proc)
TIP 216:
Redefining keys in X using xev and xmodmap. The program xev, used
in an X window terminal screen will display information on mouse
movements, keys pressed and released.
$ xev
Now type shift-4 and you'll notice the event details below:
KeyPress event, serial 29, synthetic NO, window 0x3800001,
root 0x60, subw 0x0, time 55307049, (418,242), root:(428,339),
state 0x1, keycode 13 (keysym 0x24, dollar), same_screen YES,
XLookupString gives 1 bytes: (24) "$" XmbLookupString gives
1 bytes: (24) "$" XFilterEvent returns: False
KeyRelease event, serial 29, synthetic NO, window 0x3800001,
root 0x60, subw 0x0, time 55307184, (418,242), root:(428,339),
state 0x1, keycode 13 (keysym 0x24, dollar), same_screen YES,
XLookupString gives 1 bytes: (24) "$"
So, if you want to redefine this key to say copyright, see
(/usr/X11R6/include/X11/keysymdef.h) you would type the following.
$ xmodmap -e 'keycode 13 = 4 copyright'
To get the key back to the dollar, issue the following command.
$ xmodmap -e 'keycode 13 = 4 dollar'
By the way it's possible to define multiple key codes for a sigle
key. You'll need to have a key defined as the Mode_switch. Perhaps
you'd like to use the Windows key, or the key with the Microsoft
logo on it, since you're using Linux. This key is keycode 115
$ xmodmap -e 'keycode 115 = Mode_switch'
Now you could define 3 values to the shift-4. For this example use
ld, Yen and dollar.
$ xmodmap -e 'keycode 13 = 4 dollar sterling yen'
So pressing the keys gives you the following:
shift-$ (dollar sign) Windows-$ (lb sign)
Windows-shift-$ (Yen sign)
You could go crazy and redefine all you keys.
(Thanks to hisham for this tip).
TIP 217:
Threads - which version of threads are you using?
$ getconf GNU_LIBPTHREAD_VERSION NPTL 2.3.90
For a history on threads used with gcc reference the following:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPTL
By the way, you can query all system settings with the following
command:
$ getconf -a
TIP 218:
Screenshots using ImageMagick.
If you want the entire screen, execute the following:
$ import -window root screen.png
Or to crosshair select the region with your mouse, execute the
following instead.
$ import screen.png
KDE has the ability to take screenshots with the command below.
$ ksnapshot
GNOME likewise has a command too.
$ gnome-panel-screenshot --delay 6
Visting ImageMagick again, the xwininfo command give window
information and the id can be used to capture images with the
import command.
$ xwininfo
xwininfo: Please select the window about which you would like
information by clicking the mouse in that window.
xwininfo: Window id: 0x1e00007
"chirico@squeezel:/work/svn/souptonuts - Shell - Konsole"
Absolute upper-left X: 4 Absolute upper-left Y: 21 Relative
upper-left X: 0 Relative upper-left Y: 0 Width: 880 Height:
510 Depth: 24 Visual Class: TrueColor Border width: 0 Class:
InputOutput Colormap: 0x20 (installed) Bit Gravity State:
NorthWestGravity Window Gravity State: NorthWestGravity
Backing Store State: NotUseful Save Under State: no Map State:
IsViewable Override Redirect State: no Corners: +4+21 -396+21
-396-493 +4-493 -geometry 880x510+0+0
Now use the import command with the Window id. My example is
shown below.
$ import -window 0x1e00007 id.miff
And to quickly display this image that you just saved, use the
display command.
$ display id.miff
TIP 219:
File Access over SSH using FUSE (Filesystem in USErspace). This is
a very good way to mount a remote filesystem locally. It's like
a secure NFS mount, but you don't require admin privileges on the
remote computer. You do need to have fuse-sshfs installed on the
local computer that will perform the filesystem mount.
The following works with Fedora Core 5. Only the users added to
the fuse group can mout external drives. Below the user chirico is
being added to the group fuse.
$ yum install fuse-sshfs $ usermod -a -G fuse chirico
You'll need to reboot.
$ shutdown -r now
Next I'm going to mount the remote filesystem v0.squeezel.com. This
is done as user chirico on the local computer. I'm using root on
the remote computer v0.squeezel.com because I want to mount the
complete drive.
$ mkdir v0 $ sshfs root@v0.squeezel.com:/ v0 $ cd v0 $ ls -l
bin dev home lost+found media mnt opt q
sbin srv tmp var boot etc lib master_backup
misc net proc root selinux sys usr
Now to unmount the filesystem
$ fusermount -u /home/chirico/v0
Yes, you can mount the filesystem on boot. Below shows an example
entry for /etc/fstab, but this only allows user on the current
system to view what is is /mnt/v0.
sshfs#root@v0.squeezel.com:/var/log /mnt/v0
fuse defaults 0 0
References:
(http://fuse.sourceforge.net/sshfs.html)
TIP 220:
OpenVPN - A full-featured SSL VPN solution. The following
demonstrates
a very simple OpenVPN setup between two Fedora
Core 5 computers big.squeezel.com 192.168.1.12 and
tape.squeezel.com 192.168.1.155
As root install the package on both computers.
$ yum -y install openvpn
Setup on big.squeezel.com 192.168.1.12
$ iptables -A INPUT -p udp -s 192.168.1.155 --dport
1194 -j ACCEPT $ iptables -A INPUT -i tun+ -j ACCEPT
$ iptables -A INPUT -i tap+ -j ACCEPT $ iptables -A
INPUT -i tap+ -j ACCEPT $ iptables -A FORWARD -i tap+
-j ACCEPT
Note - make sure you have commented out the following line
in /etc/sysconfig/iptables
# -A RH-Firewall-1-INPUT -j REJECT --reject-with
icmp-host-prohibited
Now from continuting with the commands that need to be
executed on big.squeezel.com 192.168.1.12 do one of the
following
$ openvpn --remote tape.squeezel.com --dev tun1
--ifconfig 10.4.0.1 10.4.0.2 --verb 9
The above statement gives lots of errors. Once it's working
you may want the following statement without the --verb
9 option.
$ openvpn --remote tape.squeezel.com --dev tun1
--ifconfig 10.4.0.1 10.4.0.2
After you finish the setup commands for tape.squeezel.com
immediately below, you'll be able to access tape.squeezel.com
as 10.4.0.2.
Setup on tape.squeezel.com 192.168.1.155
$ iptables -A INPUT -p udp -s 192.168.1.12 --dport
1194 -j ACCEPT $ iptables -A INPUT -i tun+ -j ACCEPT
$ iptables -A INPUT -i tap+ -j ACCEPT $ iptables -A
INPUT -i tap+ -j ACCEPT $ iptables -A FORWARD -i tap+
-j ACCEPT
Note - again, make sure you have commented out the following
line
in /etc/sysconfig/iptables
# -A RH-Firewall-1-INPUT -j REJECT --reject-with
icmp-host-prohibited
The openvpn commands are tape.squeezel.com are reversed
from what is shown above.
$ openvpn --remote big.squeezel.com --dev tun1
--ifconfig 10.4.0.2 10.4.0.1 --verb 9
Or
$ openvpn --remote big.squeezel.com --dev tun1
--ifconfig 10.4.0.2 10.4.0.1
Now you can access all services and ports from
big.squeezel.com on 10.4.0.1 for such services as MySQL,
secure Web, imap, etc. A quick test is nmap as follows:
$ nmap -A -T4 10.4.0.1
Starting Nmap 4.03 ( http://www.insecure.org/nmap/ )
at 2006-05-20 13:54 EDT Interesting ports on 10.4.0.1:
(The 1671 ports scanned but not shown below are in
state: closed) PORT STATE SERVICE VERSION 22/tcp
open ssh OpenSSH 4.3 (protocol 2.0) 111/tcp open
rpcbind 2 (rpc #100000) 3306/tcp open mysql MySQL
(unauthorized)
Nmap finished: 1 IP address (1 host up) scanned in
7.116 seconds
TIP 221:
openssl - Some common commands.
Finding the openssldir (Directory for OpenSSL files).
$ openssl version -a|grep OPENSSLDIR OPENSSLDIR:
"/etc/pki/tls"
Connect to a secure SMTP server with STARTTLS, assuming
the server name is squeezel.squeezel.com
$ openssl s_client -connect squeezel.squeezel.com:25
-starttls
Reference (http://www.madboa.com/geek/openssl/)
TIP 222:
Bash functions. This is easy, and I find it very useful to create
bash functions for repeated commands. For example, suppose you want
to create a quick bash function to cd to /var/log, tail messages
and tail secure. You can create this function as follows:
[root@v5 log]# m() m() > { cd /var/log { cd /var/log >
tail messages tail messages > tail secure tail secure >
} }
Above I'm typing m() then hitting return. Note the echo on the next
line followed by the prompt >. I then enter {.
TIP 223:
Stats on DNS Server. You can get stats on your DNS server.
The following works for BIND 9:
$ rndc stats
On my system I see the output in
"/var/named/chroot/var/named/data/named_stats.txt", which if an
FC4 system. By the way, if you're using BIND 8, the command is
"ndc stats", but that has a completely different format.
Format of the output
+++ Statistics Dump +++ (1153791199) success 297621 referral
32 nxrrset 21953 nxdomain 33742 recursion 28243 failure 54
--- Statistics Dump --- (1153791199)
The number (1153791199) can be converted with the date command.
$ date -d '1970-01-01 1153791199 sec' Tue Jul 25
02:33:19 EDT 2006
That's 1153791199 seconds since 1970-01-01 UCT. Which is 4 hours
fast, from EDT.
TIP 224:
snmp - simple network monitoring protocol. The following steps
setup snmp on Fedora Core 5.
$ yum install net-snmp*
Next add the following line in "/etc/snmp/snmpd.conf" at
the bottom.
rocommunity pA33worD
Start the snmp service.
$ /etc/init.d/snmpd restart
Once started, from the command prompt, it's possible to get
stats on the computer.
$ snmpwalk -v 1 -c pA33worD localhost system
Or
$ snmpwalk -v 1 -c pA33worD localhost interface
Or
$ snmpgetnext -v 1 -c pA33worD localhost sysUpTime
DISMAN-EVENT-MIB::sysUpTimeInstance = Timeticks:
(26452) 0:04:24.52
Note the Timeticks is in 100th of a second. So the computer
above has been running for 264.52 seconds.
Reference( TIP 225 shows how to use MRTG for gathering snmp
stats).
http://www.net-snmp.org/tutorial/tutorial-5/commands/snmpv3.html
TIP 225:
MRTG - Multi Router Traffic Grapher.
$ cfgmaker --output=/etc/mrtg/v5.squeezel.com \
ifref=ip --global "workdir:/var/www/html/mrtg/stats"\
pA33worD@v5.squeezel.com
Reference:
http://www.chinalinuxpub.com/doc/www.siliconvalleyccie.com/linux-hn/mrtg.htm
TIP 226:
Back Trace - This is a method of getting a back trace for all
processes on the system.
it assumes the following: a. Kernel was build with
CONFIG_MAGIC_SYS-REQ enabled (which Fedora 5 kernels
are) b. You can get direct access to the monitor.
Step 1.
Ctl-Alt-F1 (This brings you to the text console)
Step 2.
Alt-ScrollLock Ctl-ScrollLock
Note above that's Alt-ScrollLock followed by
Ctl-ScrollLock. You should see a lot of text on the
screen. To fast to read, but don't worry the text will
be in /var/log/messages at the end.
On my system the ScrollLock key is next to the
NumLock key.
TIP 227:
Ext3 Tuning - One advantage of Ext3 over Ext2 is directory indexing,
which imporves file
access in directories containing large files or when
the directory contains many files. Directory indexing
improves performance by using hashed binary trees.
There are two ways to enable dir_index. First, find
the device using the mount command.
$ mount
/dev/mapper/VolGroup00-LogVol00 on / type
ext3 (rw) proc on /proc type proc (rw) sysfs
on /sys type sysfs (rw) devpts on /dev/pts
type devpts (rw,gid=5,mode=620) /dev/sda1 on
/boot type ext3 (rw) <--- This is the one you
want tmpfs on /dev/shm type tmpfs (rw) none on
/proc/sys/fs/binfmt_misc type binfmt_misc (rw)
sunrpc on /var/lib/nfs/rpc_pipefs type rpc_pipefs
(rw) automount(pid2001) on /net type autofs
(rw,fd=4,pgrp=2001,minproto=2,maxproto=4)
From the above command, the device used is /dev/sda1.
Using the tune2fs command, directory indexing will
only apply to directories created after running the
command below.
$ tune2fs -O dir_index /dev/sda1
However, if you want it to apply to all directories,
use the e2fsck command as shown below:
$ e2fsck -D -f /dev/sda1
You'll need to bypass the warning message.
Reference: "Tuning Journaling File Systems: A small amount of effort
an dtime can yield big
results",by Steve Best. Linux Magazine, September 10,
2006. This author as has a very good book titled:
"Linux Debugging and Performance Tuning."
TIP 228:
NIC bonding - binding two or more NICs to one IP address to improve
performance. The following
instructions were done on Fedora Core 5.
Step 1.
Create the file ifcfg-bond0 with the IP address, netmask
and gateway. Shown below is my file.
$ cat /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-bond0
DEVICE=bond0 IPADDR=192.168.1.12 NETMASK=255.255.255.0
GATEWAY=192.168.1.1 USERCTL=no BOOTPROTO=none
ONBOOT=yes
Step 2.
Modify eth0, eth1 and eth2. Shown below are each one of my
files. Note that you must comment out, or remove the ip
address, netmask, gateway and hardware address from each
one of these files, since settings should only come from
the ifcfg-bond0 file above. I've chosen to comment out the
lines, instead of removing, should I decide to unbond my
NICS sometime in the future.
$ cat /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0
# Linksys Gigabit Network Adapter DEVICE=eth0
BOOTPROTO=none #HWADDR=00:12:17:5C:A7:9D
#IPADDR=192.168.1.12 #NETMASK=255.255.255.0
#TYPE=Ethernet #GATEWAY=192.168.1.1 #USERCTL=no
#IPV6INIT=no #PEERDNS=yes ONBOOT=yes # Settings for
Bond MASTER=bond0 SLAVE=yes
$ cat /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth1
# Linksys Gigabit Network Adapter DEVICE=eth1
BOOTPROTO=none #HWADDR=00:12:17:5C:A7:C9
#IPADDR=192.168.1.13 #NETMASK=255.255.255.0 ONBOOT=yes
#TYPE=Ethernet USERCTL=no #IPV6INIT=no #PEERDNS=yes #
# Settings for bonding MASTER=bond0 SLAVE=yes
$ cat /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth2
# Linksys Gigabit Network Adapter DEVICE=eth2
BOOTPROTO=none #HWADDR=00:12:17:5C:A7:9D
#IPADDR=192.168.1.12 #NETMASK=255.255.255.0 ONBOOT=yes
#TYPE=Ethernet #GATEWAY=192.168.1.1 #USERCTL=no
#IPV6INIT=no #PEERDNS=yes MASTER=bond0 SLAVE=yes
Step 3.
Set the load parameters for bond0 bonding kernel
module. Append the following lines to /etc/modprobe.conf
# bonding commands alias bond0 bonding options bond0
mode=balance-alb miimon=100
Step 4.
Load the bond driver module from the command prompt.
$ modprobe bonding
Step 5.
Restart the network, or restart the computer. Note I restarted
to computer, since my NICs above had MAC assignments.
$ service network restart # Or restart computer
Take a look at the proc settings.
$ cat /proc/net/bonding/bond0 Ethernet Channel Bonding
Driver: v3.0.3 (March 23, 2006)
Bonding Mode: adaptive load balancing Primary Slave:
None Currently Active Slave: eth2 MII Status: up MII
Polling Interval (ms): 100 Up Delay (ms): 0 Down Delay
(ms): 0
Slave Interface: eth2 MII Status: up Link Failure Count:
0 Permanent HW addr: 00:13:72:80:62:f0
References:
http://www.cyberciti.biz/nixcraft/vivek/blogger/2006/04/linux-bond-or-team-multiple-network.php
Good, well written article describing the steps above.
http://sourceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=24692&package_id=146474
Documentation for bonding that can also be found in the kernel
./Documentation/networking/bonding.txt
TIP 229:
/etc/nsswitch.conf - System Databases and Name Service Switch
configuration file.
This file determines lookup order of services. For example,
to match a name to an IP address, an entry can be put into
the /etc/hosts file. Or a DNS query can be made. What's
the order? Normally, it's the entry in the /etc/hosts file.
because /etc/nsswitch.conf contains the following setting
hosts: files dns
See man nsswitch.conf for more settings.
TIP 230:
Finding DST settings on the live system. In 2007 Daylight Saving
Time was extended in the United States, Canada, and Bermuda. Before
this change we adjusted the clocks on the last Sunday in October -
Not anymore. We now change it on the first Sunday in November.
$ zdump -v EST5EDT |grep '2007'
EST5EDT Sun Mar 11 06:59:59 2007 UTC = Sun Mar 11 01:59:59
2007 EST isdst=0 gmtoff=-18000 EST5EDT Sun Mar 11 07:00:00
2007 UTC = Sun Mar 11 03:00:00 2007 EDT isdst=1 gmtoff=-14400
EST5EDT Sun Nov 4 05:59:59 2007 UTC = Sun Nov 4 01:59:59
2007 EDT isdst=1 gmtoff=-14400 EST5EDT Sun Nov 4 06:00:00
2007 UTC = Sun Nov 4 01:00:00 2007 EST isdst=0 gmtoff=-18000
Correct settings for EDT are shown above. Note, the months Mar
and Nov.
You can also run the same command by location.
$ zdump -v /usr/share/zoneinfo/America/New_York|grep '2007'
Note: This time conversion file can be created manually. For
instructions on how to perform
this task, execute the following command.
$ man zic
zic is the time zone compiler.
Reference:
http://www-1.ibm.com/support/docview.wss?rs=0&q1=T1010301&uid=isg3T1010301&loc=en_US&cs=utf-8&cc=us&lang=en
TIP 231:
Qt - Compiling Qt 4 programs statically to run on remote systems
that do
have Qt 4 libraries installed. You actually download the Qt
4 source program.
Step 1 - Download Qt 4.
You will download a separate version of Qt 4. Yes, even if you
have Qt 4 installed on your system, you'll want to download
another version to statically compile your programs. I performed
the following steps on my computer:
$ mkdir -p /home/src/qt $ wget
ftp://ftp.trolltech.com/qt/source/qt-x11-opensource-src-4.2.2.tar.gz
$ cd /home/src/qt $ tar -xzf
qt-x11-opensource-src-4.2.2.tar.gz
Note, make sure you get the latest version of Qt. When I'm
wrote this it was 4.2.2. Check for updates.
Step 2 - Compile Qt for static mode
The text step is to compile qt for static mode.
$ cd /home/src/qt/qt-x11-opensource-src-4.2.2 $ ./configure
-static -prefix /home/src/qt/qt-x11-opensource-src-4.2.2 $
make sub-src
At this point Qt 4 is installed in static mode.
Step 3 - Set PATH
Now set the PATH to reference this version.
$ PATH=/home/src/qt/qt-x11-opensource-src-4.2.2/bin:$PATH $
export PATH
Step 4 - Compile Your Source
My program source is located in /home/chirico/widgetpaint
$ cd /home/chirico/widgetpaint $ qmake -project $ qmake
-config release $ make
TIP 232:
SELinux - FC6 quick fix for problems. Using
system-config-securitylevel to
fix simple problem. (Also see TIP 238).
$ ssh -Y user@servertofix $ system-config-securitylevel
You do not have to ssh into the computer as root. As long
as X is running "init 5", then you can run the system-config
command above and it will ask you for the root password.
Reference (TIP 238).
TIP 233:
Mutt - tagging multiple messages and moving them to a different
folder.
If you want to tag multiple messages with mutt, use the capital
T, when in mutt.
T ~A (To tag all messages. Note, enter the tilda "~"
without quotes) ;s (After entering ;s, you'll be asked
where to save the message)
From here you can create a new fold. If you're using IMAP mail
boxes, then use C to create a mailbox.
To delete messages without exiting mutt, enter "$", without
the quotes.
(Reference: http://www.mutt.org/doc/manual/manual-4.html )
TIP 234:
Mutt - color coding message in mutt.
The following is written in the .muttrc file.
color index brightblue default Poker color body brightyellow
default Error
Note, the first line will color blue all indexes with the word
Poker. The second operates on the body of the message.
TIP 235:
cat - header, stdin, and footer. (Working with /dev/fd/0 or -)
If you have data from a command that you want preceded by the
contents of a header file and followed by data in a footer file,
then, the following command may help.
$ w|cat header /dev/fd/0 footer
Above the output of the "w" command follows the contents of
the header file. Note "/dev/fd/0" refers to stdin. Yes, you
could use "-" in its place in this situation. However, if "-"
is used as the first argument, it will be interpreted as as a
command line option, whereas "/dev/fd/0" would not.
TIP 236:
biosdecode - Querying the Bios from the command prompt.
This command can be executed as followed from root:
$ biosdecode
SYSID present.
Revision: 0 Structure Table Address: 0x000F0411 Number Of
Structures: 1
SMBIOS 2.3 present.
Structure Table Length: 2570 bytes
TIP 237:
emacs - commands in your ~/.emacs file to disable splash screen
startup
message.
;;disable splash screen and startup message (setq
inhibit-startup-message t) (setq initial-scratch-message nil)
TIP 238:
SELinux - fixing SELinux problems in the audit.log, since the
last reboot; and, building a kernel module to permit access.
These instructions have only been tested on Fedora Core 7. The
first step is to install checkpolicy, and audit. Normally
audit is already installed.
$ yum install checkpolicy $ yum install audit
$ mkdir -p /root/selinux && cd /root/selinux $ audit2allow
-M moduleName -l -i /var/log/audit/audit.log
$ cp moduleName.pp /usr/share/selinux/targeted/. $ cd
/usr/share/selinux/targeted/
$ semodule -i moduleName.pp
Note: You need to load the module from
/usr/share/selinux/targeted or you may get the following error:
"semodule: Could not read file"
Next, check to make sure the module is loaded.
$ semodule -l
Note, you may want to change the name "moduleName" to something
more descriptive. You definitely need to change the name if
you run this a second time, since each time this is run old
changes are overwritten.
Reference:
http://fedorasolved.org/security-solutions/selinux-module-building/
If you really get stuck, you may need to relabel all files
on your system. First edit /etc/selinux/config and set to
permissive mode. Next run the following command.
$ touch /.autorelabel
The following is an excellent reference for creating your
own policies:
http://www.redhatmagazine.com/2007/08/21/a-step-by-step-guide-to-building-a-new-selinux-policy-module/
TIP 239:
Yum Database Fix-up - you may have done a yum update, then,
inadvertently killed it. It maybe necessary to rebuild the database.
$ rm /var/lib/rpm/__db* $ rpm --rebuilddb $ yum clean all
Note, you may also run into the situation where you need to reinstall
a package directly. The following example shows how to reinstall
the sysstat package on fedora 8.
$ wget
http://download.fedora.redhat.com/pub/fedora/linux/releases/8/Everything/i386/os/Packages/sysstat-7.0.4-3.fc8.i386.rpm
$ rpm -ivh --replacepkgs sysstat-7.0.4-3.fc8.i386.rpm
TIP 240:
Convert Epoch Seconds to the Current Time. Note, some programs like
Nagios list epoch seconds. Here's a way to do the conversion.
$ date -d "1970-01-01 1184521826 sec GMT" Sun Jul 15 13:50:26
EDT 2007
The above command converts 1184521826 to the current time.
TIP 241:
vmstat - For disk IO subsystem total statistics since last boot
use the -D option
$ vmstat -D
27 disks
2 partitions
2766536 total reads
526906 merged reads
61184034 read sectors 21233780 milli reading
8849711 writes 3719803 merged writes
100480938 written sectors 181253052 milli writing
0 inprogress IO
12854 milli spent IO
The last stat shows 12854 ms spent reading from the disk.
Merged reads and merged writes happen when the kernel tries
to combine requests for contiguous regions on the disk for a
performance increase.
If you want more detailed totals, use the -d option.
An important note, vmstat can provide totals on disk performance
whereas iostat provides data rate of change during the sample.
TIP 242:
htop - This is an excellent substitute for top. This program is
easier to read, with better color coded output.
TIP 243:
ls - hints. Although the -d option is often used to find directories,
it can also be used with wildcards ".*" to list all files beginning
with a period.
$ ls -d .* . .bash_logout .config .eggcups .qt .redhat
.sqlite_history .. .bash_history .bashrc .eclipse .emacs
TIP 244:
aureport - Getting a nice SELinux audit report. Options include
[today, this-month,
this-week ..etc]. And, if you get anything in the avc row,
then, you can issue the --avc -i option.
$ aureport --start today
Summary Report ====================== Range of time in logs:
10/12/2007 10:09:05.572 - 10/24/2007 14:20:01.242 Selected time
for report: 10/24/2007 00:00:01 - 10/24/2007 14:20:01.242 Number
of changes in configuration: 0 Number of changes to accounts,
groups, or roles: 0 Number of logins: 0 Number of failed logins:
0 Number of authentications: 1 Number of failed authentications:
0 Number of users: 1 Number of terminals: 2 Number of host names:
1 Number of executables: 3 Number of files: 0 Number of AVC's:
0 Number of MAC events: 0 Number of failed syscalls: 0 Number
of anomaly events: 0 Number of responses to anomaly events:
0 Number of crypto events: 0 Number of process IDs: 105 Number
of events: 111
TIP 245:
Postfix - Sender Dependent Relay Host Maps. You would use this
type of setup with Google Apps, where you're supporting
local Linux email accounts with your domain MX record
pointing to Google.
/etc/postfix/main.cf:
sender_dependent_relayhost_maps =
hash:/etc/postfix/sender_relayhost smtp_sasl_auth_enable =
yes smtp_sasl_password_maps = hash:/etc/postfix/sasl_passwd
smtp_sasl_security_options = noanonymous
smtp_sender_dependent_authentication = yes
/etc/postfix/sender_relayhost:
#format: sender-address relayhost
mchirico@cwxstat.org [cwxstat.org]
zchirico@cwxstat.org [cwxstat.org]
achirico@cwxstat.org [cwxstat.org]
lchirico@cwxstat.org [cwxstat.org]
root@cwxstat.org [cwxstat.org]
/etc/postfix/sasl_passwd:
#email email:password
mchirico@cwxstat.org mchirico@cwxstat.org:89mbup
zchirico@cwxstat.org zchirico@cwxstat.org:PAss8orD
achirico@cwxstat.org achirico@cwxstat.org:P33key
lchirico@cwxstat.org lchirico@cwxstat.org:Dunkin34
root@cwxstat.org zchirico@cwxstat.org:P4rple
References:
http://souptonuts.sourceforge.net/postfix_tutorial.html
http://groups.google.com/group/list.postfix.users/browse_thread/thread/a4f5ca7e3137b6c3/9d1db8686b1e3ffe?lnk=st&q=sender_dependent_relayhost_maps#9d1db8686b1e3ffe
TIP 246:
Finding the source from an rpm file, using the audit package as
an example.
$ rpm -qi audit
Name : audit Relocations:
(not relocatable) Version : 1.5.6
Vendor: Fedora Project Release : 2.fc7
Build Date: Mon 03 Sep 2007 11:42:01 AM EDT Install
Date: Fri 12 Oct 2007 10:48:28 AM EDT Build Host:
xenbuilder4.fedora.phx.redhat.com Group : System
Environment/Daemons Source RPM: audit-1.5.6-2.fc7.src.rpm
Size : 586509 License: GPL
Signature : DSA/SHA1, Thu 06 Sep 2007 04:42:18 PM EDT, Key
ID b44269d04f2a6fd2 Packager : Fedora Project URL :
http://people.redhat.com/sgrubb/audit/ Summary : User space
tools for 2.6 kernel auditing Description : The audit package
contains the user space utilities for storing and searching
the audit records generate by the audit subsystem in the Linux
2.6 kernel.
The above information give you the source package name
audit-1.5.6-2.fc7.src.rpm.
Next to findout your release version:
$ cat /etc/redhat-release Fedora release 7 (Moonshine)
To get the download location
$ grep 'SRPMS' /etc/yum.repos.d/fedora-updates.repo
#baseurl=http://download.fedora.redhat.com/pub/fedora/linux/updates/$releasever/SRPMS/
So, to get our file, we'd use the following command:
$ wget
http://download.fedora.redhat.com/pub/fedora/linux/updates/7/SRPMS/audit-1.5.6-2.fc7.src.rpm
Note - consider installing yum-utils and rpmdevtools, especially if
you plan to rebuild
the kernel from source. (Reference:
http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Docs/CustomKernel)
$ yum install yum-utils rpmdevtools
TIP 247:
Kernel source - pulling down the latest version of the kernel. This
is Torvald's daily snapshot.
$ git clone
git://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux-2.6.git
linux-2.6
Once downloaded, use the following command above to get updates:
$ git pull
TIP 248:
syscalls - want to know all the system calls available?
$ man syscalls
(Reference:
http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-system-calls/)
TIP 249:
Rute User's Tutorial and Exposition (Version 1.0.0) by Paul
Sheer. This has a lot of Linux and programming tips:
http://rute.2038bug.com/index.html.gz
TIP 250:
dmidecode - Get serial numbers, pic-slots, and other system
information that's normally stored in your computer's BIOS. Yes,
you can do this from the command prompt as root:
$ dmidecode
(Reference: http://www.nongnu.org/dmidecode/)
TIP 251:
whatmask - This is a subnet mask notation conversion tool. Or
a Tool for calculating available host address ranges with CIDR
notation input.
For example, suppose you want to calculate for confirm how to
construct two equal subnets off of the 192.168.1 network, including
netmask, start and stop usable IP addresses.
$ whatmask 192.168.1.0/25
-----------------------------------------------
TCP/IP NETWORK INFORMATION
------------------------------------------------
IP Entered = ..................: 192.168.1.0
CIDR = ........................: /25 Netmask
= .....................: 255.255.255.128
Netmask (hex) = ...............: 0xffffff80
Wildcard Bits = ...............: 0.0.0.127
------------------------------------------------
Network Address = .............: 192.168.1.0 Broadcast
Address = ...........: 192.168.1.127 Usable IP
Addresses = .........: 126 First Usable IP Address =
.....: 192.168.1.1 Last Usable IP Address = ......:
192.168.1.126
$ whatmask 192.168.1.128/25
------------------------------------------------
TCP/IP NETWORK INFORMATION
------------------------------------------------
IP Entered = ..................: 192.168.1.128
CIDR = ........................: /25 Netmask
= .....................: 255.255.255.128
Netmask (hex) = ...............: 0xffffff80
Wildcard Bits = ...............: 0.0.0.127
------------------------------------------------
Network Address = .............: 192.168.1.128
Broadcast Address = ...........: 192.168.1.255 Usable
IP Addresses = .........: 126 First Usable IP Address =
.....: 192.168.1.129 Last Usable IP Address = ......:
192.168.1.254
TIP 252:
/etc/sysconfig/init This file has settings for interactive prompt
during
the run level initializtion (run levels are set in
/etc/inittab). So, if you want to be prompted to load
up everthing from sshd, ntp etc., then, change the prompt
below to yes.
# Set to anything other than 'no' to allow hotkey
interactive startup... PROMPT=no
TIP 253:
Need to change the localtime on your computer? Say you want it to be
US Eastern. Just copy the time file (This assumes Fedora or RedHat).
$ cp /usr/share/zoneinfo/US/Eastern /etc/localtime
TIP 254:
You use putty from Windows; but, when you try to run tools like
lokkit, mc, or any Nurses menu on your Linux box the display is
hard to read. To fix this, from Putty, select the following options
(Window/Translation). Now under the box titled "Received data
assumed to be in which character set: choose UTF-8.
TIP 255:
eth0, eth1, or eth10? If you stuck and cannot figure out what device
your NIC is registering under, perhaps the kernel has loaded from
boot, then take a look under the following:
[root@soekris00 network-scripts]# ls /sys/class/net/ eth10 eth11
eth12 eth13 eth14 eth15 eth16 eth9 gre0 lo tunl0
Okay, but you want to start at eth0. If fact you can control which
NIC starts at which device. Here's how.
$ udevinfo -a -p /sys/class/net/eth10 ... looking at device
'/class/net/eth10': KERNEL=="eth10" SUBSYSTEM=="net"
DRIVER=="" ATTR{addr_len}=="6" ATTR{iflink}=="8"
ATTR{ifindex}=="8" ATTR{features}=="0x0" ATTR{type}=="1"
ATTR{link_mode}=="0" ATTR{address}=="00:00:24:ca:0a:c2"
ATTR{broadcast}=="ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff" ATTR{carrier}=="1" ...
Take the following information above and create the following file
/etc/udev/rules.d/11-local.rules
And populate this file with the following information:
KERNEL=="eth*",ATTR{address}=="00:00:24:ca:0a:c2",NAME="eth0"
TIP 256:
Compiling a kernel on a 64 bit computer for a 32 bit computer.
I ran into this when building a custom kernel for the soekris device,
where I needed to compile the kernel on my fast 64 bit computer.
Use the ARCH= command on both menuconfig and bzImage
make ARCH=i386 menuconfig
Note, even when filling in the .config parameters, you need to use
the ARCH command above if you're compiling on a 64 bit computer
for a 32 bit system.
make ARCH=i386 bzImage make ARCH=i386 modules
TIP 257:
Automatically loading a kernel module during boot. Copy the module
under the /lib/modules/$(uname -r)/ directory.
cp yourmodule.ko /lib/modules/$(uname -r)/. depmod -a
Note depmod will load all modules under /lib/modules/$(uname -r)/
provided it has a newer timestamp. So if something isn't getting
loaded, you may want to touch the file.
TIP 258:
Generate a uuid: uuidgen - command-line utility to create a new UUID value
uuidgen
The above command generated the following uuid:
c0bcfac5-286b-4f76-b3a0-bd45adfd65ca
Each time this command is run a new uuid is generated.
TIP 259:
Filesystem Hierarchy Standard - a reference to how a standard
Unix filesystem is organized. This is needed reading for package
developers.
http://www.pathname.com/fhs/
TIP 260:
Emacs - you have a file where you want to replace the returns
hidden in the document with some other combination.
For example, suppose you have to the following text:
This is a sample
sentance.
And you want to convert it to the following
This is a sample\
sentance.
Note, you're adding \ before the returns.
You can do this in emacs as follows. The hidden return
is ctl-q ctl-j. So
esc-x replace-string ctl-q ctl-j
This comes in handy for C string assignments.
TIP 261:
Changing Postfix to be the default on a Fedora installation.
Step 1:
$ /sbin/service sendmail stop
$ chkconfig sendmail off
$ alternatives --config mta
You'll need to follow the instructions after executing the alternatives
command.
Step 2:
$ /sbin/service postfix start
$ /sbin/chkconfig --list postfix
THE FOLLOWING SECTIONS STARTS THE PROGRAMMING TIPS
PROGRAMMING TIP 1:
Simple open command that restarts the close if a signal occurs.
Also note, the POSIX standards committee decided all new functions
would not use errno and would instead directly return the error
number in the function.
A lot of functions return -1 on an error condition, then, set errno
to the value of the error. This will still work for all the well
known functions; but, it's changing.
/* start of code open.c
Compile gcc -o open open.c
Reference (Look for simple_but_common_x.x.x.tar.gz):
http://sourceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=79066
*/
#include
#include
#include
#include
#define BUFLEN 100 extern int errno;
int main (void) {
int fp,error; char buf[BUFLEN+1];
if ((fp = open ("data", O_RDWR | O_CREAT, 0600)) == -1)
{
fprintf (stderr, "Can't open data: %s\n", strerror (errno));
return 1;
}
snprintf (buf, BUFLEN, "123"); write (fp, buf, strlen (buf));
// Restart close should a signal occur */ while((( error = close
(fp) ) == -1) && (errno == EINTR)); if(error == -1)
perror("Failed to close the file\n");
return 0;
}
/* end of open.c */
PROGRAMMING TIP 2:
Example of setting the effective UID on a file
/* start of code
gcc uid_open.c -o uid_open su chown root.chirico uid_open chmod
u+s uid_open exit
Now you can run this as chirico and write to the root directory
*/ #include
#include
#include
int main() {
int fd;
if ((fd = open("/root/datajunk", O_RDWR | O_CREAT, 0600))
== -1) {
fprintf(stderr, "Can't open file \n"); return 1;
}
write(fd, "0123456", strlen("0123456")); close(fd); return 0;
}
/* end of code */
PROGRAMMING TIP 3:
Writing a C http post.
For downloads reference:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/cpearls/spider.tar.gz?download
PROGRAMMING TIP 4:
Writing a 2.6.x Kernel Module:
Look for the latest version of "procreadwrite". This is a 2.6
kernel modules that demonstrates how to create /proc entires and
write directly to user-land via tty. It's updated to reflect
replacement of "current->tty" with "current->signal->tty".
http://sourceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=79066
PROGRAMMING TIP 5:
Creating a filename with '\n'. This goes with (TIP 71)
/**** topen.c
***********************************************************
Filenames can be created with any character except the null
character and a slash.
This example creates a file with returns '\n\n'
There's a way to remove a file by inode:
$ ls -libt *
And, once you know the inode
$ find . -inum
or
$ find . -inum
or
$ find . -inum
Compile:
gcc -o topen -Wall -W -O2 -s -pipe topen.c
Reference:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/cpearls/simple_but_common_0.0.14.tar.gz?download
*/ #include
#include
#include
#include
#define BUFLEN 100 extern int errno;
int main (void) {
int fp,error; char buf[BUFLEN+1];
if ((fp = open ("\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", O_RDWR | O_CREAT, 0600))
== -1)
{
fprintf (stderr, "Can't open data: %s\n", strerror
(errno)); return 1;
}
snprintf (buf, BUFLEN, "123"); write (fp, buf, strlen (buf));
// Restart close should a signal occur */ while((( error =
close (fp) ) == -1) && (errno == EINTR)); if(error == -1)
perror("Failed to close the file\n");
return 0;
}
**Note, if you want email notification after every 50 new tips have been
added, then, click on the following link:
https://sourceforge.net/project/filemodule_monitor.php?filemodule_id=120838
PROGRAMMING TIP 6:
Working With The Lemon Parser Generator.
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/souptonuts/lemon_examples.tar.gz?download
PROGRAMMING TIP 7:
copy command for std container output.
#include
- #include
using namespace std; int main(void) {
vector
v.push_back(1); v.push_back(2);
copy(v.begin(),v.end(),ostream_iterator
l.push_back(23); l.push_back(12);
copy(l.begin(),l.end(),ostream_iterator
}
PROGRAMMING TIP 8:
/* Copyright (c) 2005 Mike Chirico mchirico@comcast.net
mchirico@users.sourceforge.net
Example of using virtual functions. Note the use of "initialization
lists"
for assinging the variable first and last.
Compile:
g++ -o virtualfunc -Wall -W -O2 -s -pipe virtual_function.cc
Download:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/cpearls/simple_but_common_cpp.tar.gz?download
*/
#include
- #include
using namespace std;
class Employee { string first,last; public:
Employee(const string& fn="John",const string& ln="Smith"):
first(fn),last(ln) {} virtual void print() const { cout << "First
name: " << first << ", Last name: " << last << endl; } virtual
~Employee() {}
};
class Manager : public Employee {
int level; list
public:
Manager(const string& fn="Ivan",const string& ln="Stedwick", int
lvl=1): Employee(fn,ln), level(lvl) {} void print() {
cout << "Manager level: " << level << " ";
Employee::print(); cout << "Supervises:" << endl;
for_each(subordinates.begin(),subordinates.end(),mem_fun(&Employee::print));
cout << endl << endl;
} void addstaff(Employee& staff){
subordinates.push_front(&staff);
} void addstaff(Employee* staff){
subordinates.push_front(staff);
}
};
int main() {
Employee p0("Lisa","Payne"); Manager m0;
m0.addstaff(new Employee("Zoe","Bear")); /* uses
void addstaff(Employee* staff) */ m0.addstaff(new
Employee("Leah","Bopper")); m0.addstaff(new
Employee("Abby","Chicken")); m0.addstaff(p0); /* void
addstaff(Employee& staff) needed for this one */ m0.addstaff(new
Employee()); m0.print();
return 0;
}
PROGRAMMING TIP 9:
/* Named Constructor Idiom.
Reference:
http://www.parashift.com/c++-faq-lite/ctors.html#faq-10.6
*/ #include
class Point {
public:
static Point rectangular(float x, float y); static Point polar(float
radius, float angle); float get_x() { return x_; } float get_y()
{ return y_; }
private:
Point(float x, float y); float x_, y_;
};
inline Point::Point(float x, float y)
: x_(x), y_(y) {}
inline Point Point::rectangular(float x, float y) { return Point(x,y);
}
inline Point Point::polar(float radius, float angle) { return
Point(radius*cos(angle),radius*sin(angle)); }
int main(void) {
Point p1 = Point::rectangular(5.7,1.2); Point p2 =
Point::polar(5.7,1.2);
cout << "(" << p1.get_x() << ", " << p1.get_y() << ")" << endl;
cout << "(" << p2.get_x() << ", " << p2.get_y() << ")" << endl;
}
PROGRAMMING TIP 10:
/* Copy_constructor_assignment.cc
Copyright (c) 2004 GPL Mike Chirico, mchirico@comcast.net or
mchirico@users.sourceforge.net
Reference: "The C++ Programming Language", 3rd ed, by Stroustrup
pg. 246.
Download:
http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/cpearls/simple_but_common.tar.gz?download
*/
#include
class Name { public:
char* s;
};
class Table {
Name *p; size_t sz;
public:
Table(size_t s=15) {
p = new Name[sz=s]; for(size_t i=0; i< sz; ++i)
p[i].s="****";
}
Table(const Table &t); Table& operator=(const Table&); int prt();
void asgn(char* ts,size_t index); ~Table(){ delete[] p; }
};
Table& Table::operator=(const Table &t) {
if( this != &t) {
delete[] p; p = new Name[sz=t.sz]; for(size_t i=0; i< t.sz;
++i) p[i]=t.p[i];
} return *this;
}
int Table::prt() {
for(size_t i=0; i< sz; ++i) std::cout << p[i].s << " "; std::cout <<
std::endl; return 0;
}
/*
asgn will increase the array of strings, if needed to size index+1,
and add the string ts to position index.
*/ void Table::asgn(char* ts,size_t index) {
if(index < sz ) {
p[index].s=ts;
}else if ( index >= sz ){
Name *tp; tp=p;
p = new Name[index+1];
for(size_t i=0; i< sz; ++i) p[i].s=tp[i].s; delete [] tp;
for(size_t i=sz; i < index; ++i)p[i].s="****";
p[index].s=ts; sz=index+1;
}
}
int main(void) {
Table t1; Table t2(5);
// this is bigger than initial sz t1.asgn("myname",20); t1.prt();
t2.prt();
t1=t2;
t1.prt(); t2.prt();
} BY hakgyan.blogspot.com
No comments:
Post a Comment